6: Solving problems

Publication Date:
30 Jan 2024
Pages:
75–89
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.51952/9781447368120.ch006
Restricted access
Rights and permissions Cite this chapter
Buy article/chapter (
GBP  £20.00
)

This chapter begins by defining problems and problem-solving, before exploring SARA as a model for police problem-solving in the UK. It breaks down the four stages of SARA – Scanning, Analysis, Response and Assessment – and discusses the difficulties in implementation, including ensuring the necessary organisational support, managing public expectations and working within the limits of police capacity.

  • ACPO (Association of Chief Police Officers). 2006. Practice advice on professionalising the business of neighbourhood policing. London: ACPO.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Alderson, J.C. 1979. Policing freedom: A commentary on the dilemmas of policing in western democracies. Estover: Macdonald and Evans.

  • Almandras, S., Ward, P., Woodhouse, J. and Ares, E. 2010. Police reform and social responsibility bill. London: House of Commons Library. Available at https://researchbriefings.files.parliament.uk/documents/RP10-81/RP10-81.pdf [Accessed 7 October 2017].

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • APCC (Association of Police and Crime Commissioners). 2021. Ten years of PCCs making a difference: Anti-social behaviour – making communities safer. Available at https://www.apccs.police.uk/ten-years-of-pccs-making-a-difference/anti-social-behaviour-making-communities-safer/ [Accessed 9 November 2022].

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • APCC and NPCC (Association of Police and Crime Commissioners and National Police Chiefs’ Council). 2016. Policing vision 2025. Available at https://www.npcc.police.uk/documents/Policing%20Vision.pdf [Accessed 30 August 2017].

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Ariel, B., Weinborn, C. and Sherman, L.W. 2016. ‘Soft’ policing at hot spots—do police community support officers work? A randomized controlled trial. Journal of Experimental Criminology, 12(3): 277–317.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Ashby, M.P. 2017. Comparing methods for measuring crime harm/severity. Policing: A Journal of Policy and Practice, 12(4): 439–454.

  • ASU (Arizona State University) Center for Problem-Oriented Policing. nd. The SARA model. Available at https://popcenter.asu.edu/content/sara-model-0 [Accessed 19 December 2021].

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Audit Commission. 1996. Streetwise: Effective police patrol. London: HMSO.

  • Bangs, M. 2016. Research outputs: Developing a Crime Severity Score for England and Wales using data on crimes recorded by the police. Available at https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/crimeandjustice/articles/researchoutputsdevelopingacrimeseverityscoreforenglandandwalesusingdataoncrimesrecordedbythepolice/2016-11-29 [Accessed 16 July 2019].

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Barker, A. 2014. Communicating security? Policing urban spaces and control signals. Urban Studies, 51(14): 3046–3061.

  • Barnes, I. and Eagle, T. 2007. The role of community engagement in neighbourhood policing. Policing: A Journal of Policy and Practice, 1(2): 161–172.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Bayley, D. 1988. Community policing: A report from the devil’s advocate. In J.R. Greene and S.D. Mastrofski (eds) Community policing: Rhetoric or reality. New York: Praeger, pp225–238.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Bennett, T. 1991. The effectiveness of a police-initiated fear-reducing strategy. The British Journal of Criminology, 31(1): 1–14.

  • Bittner, E. 2005. Florence Nightingale in pursuit of Willie Hutton: A theory of the police. In: T. Newburn (ed) Policing: Key readings. Cullompton: Willan Publishing, pp150–172.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Blair, G., Weinstein, J.M., Christia, F., Arias, E., Badran, E., Blair, R.A., Cheema, A., Farooqui, A., Fetzer, T., Grossman, G. and Haim, D. 2021. Community policing does not build citizen trust in police or reduce crime in the Global South. Science, 374(6571): eabd3446.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Bland, M., Leggetter, M., Cestaro, D. and Sebire, J. 2021. Fifteen minutes per day keeps the violence away: A crossover randomised controlled trial on the impact of foot patrols on serious violence in large hot spot areas. Cambridge Journal of Evidence-Based Policing, 5(3): 93–118.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • BMG Research. 2019. Public perceptions of policing in England and Wales 2018. Available at https://www.bmgresearch.co.uk//wp-content/uploads/2019/01/1578-HMICFRS-Public-Perceptions-of-Policing-2018_FINAL.pdf [Accessed 12 October 2019].

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Bochel, C., Bochel, H., Somerville, P. and Worley, C. 2008. Marginalised or enabled voices? ‘User participation’ in policy and practice. Social Policy and Society, 7(2): 201–210.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Borovec, K., Balgač, I. and Mraović, I.C. 2019. Police visibility as an influencing factor on citizens’ perception of safety. Journal of Criminal Justice and Security, 2: 135–160.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Borrion, H., Ekblom, P., Alrajeh, D., Borrion, A.L., Keane, A., Koch, D., Mitchener-Nissen, T. and Toubaline, S. 2020. The problem with crime problem-solving: Towards a second generation POP? The British Journal of Criminology, 60(1): 219–240.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Bottoms, A. and Tankebe, J. 2012. Beyond procedural justice: A dialogic approach to legitimacy in criminal justice. Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology, 102(1): 119–170.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Bourdieu, P. 1986. The forms of capital. In J.G. Richardson (ed) Handbook of theory and research for the sociology of education. New York: Greenwood, pp241–258.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Bradford, B. 2011. Convergence, not divergence? Trends and trajectories in public contact and confidence in the police. British Journal of Criminology, 51(1): 179–200.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Bradford, B. 2014. Policing and social identity: Procedural justice, inclusion and cooperation between police and public. Policing and Society, 24(1): 22–43.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Bradford, B. and Jackson, J. 2010. Trust and confidence in the police: A conceptual review. SSRN Journal. Available at https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.1684508 [Accessed 10 May 2019].

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Bradford, B. and Jackson, J. 2016. Cooperating with the police as an act of social control: Trust and neighbourhood concerns as predictors of public assistance. Nordisk Politiforskning, 3(2): 111–131.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Bradford, B., Jackson, J., Hough, M. and Farrall, S. 2009a. Trust and confidence in criminal justice: A review of the British research literature. In A. Jokinen, E. Ruuskanen, M. Yordanova, D. Markov and M. Ilcheva (eds) Review of need: Indicators of public confidence in criminal justice. Available at https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1303567 [Accessed 10 May 2019].

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Bradford, B., Jackson, J. and Stanko, E.A. 2009b. Contact and confidence: Revisiting the impact of public encounters with the police. Policing and Society, 19(1): 20–46.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Bradford, B., Murphy, K. and Jackson, J. 2014. Officers as mirrors: Policing, procedural justice and the (re) production of social identity. British Journal of Criminology, 54(4): 527–550.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Bradford, B., Topping, J., Martin, R. and Jackson, J. 2018. Can diversity promote trust? Neighbourhood context and trust in the police in Northern Ireland. Policing and Society: 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1080/10439463.2018.1479409

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Bradley, R. 1998. Public expectations and perceptions of policing. Police research series, paper 96. London: Home Office Policing and Reducing Crime Unit, Research, Development and Statistics Directorate.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Braga, A.A. 2007. Effects of hot spots policing on crime. Campbell Systematic Reviews, 3(1): 1–36.

  • Braga, A.A. and Weisburd, D. 2006. Problem-oriented policing: The disconnect between principles and practice. In D. Weisburd and A.A. Braga (eds) Police innovation: Contrasting perspectives. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp133–154.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Braga, A.A., and Bond, B.J. 2008. Policing crime and disorder hot spots: A randomized controlled trial. Criminology, 46(3): 577–607.

  • Braga, A., Papachristos, A. and Hureau, D. 2012. Hot spots policing effects on crime. Campbell Systematic Reviews, 8(8): 1–96.

  • Braga, A.A., Turchan, B.S., Papachristos, A.V. and Hureau, D.M. 2019. Hot spots policing and crime reduction: An update of an ongoing systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Experimental Criminology, 15(3): 289–311.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Braverman, S. 2022. Suella Braverman at the APCC and NPCC Partnership Summit. Speech. 9 November. Available at https://www.gov.uk/government/speeches/suella-braverman-at-the-apcc-and-npcc-partnership-summit [Accessed 9 November 2022].

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Brewer, R. 2013. Enhancing crime control partnerships across government: Examining the role of trust and social capital on American and Australian waterfronts. Police Quarterly, 16(4): 371–394.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Brownlee, I. 1998. New Labour – new penology? Punitive rhetoric and the limits of managerialism in criminal justice policy. Journal of Law and Society, 25(3): 313–335.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Brunger, M. 2014. Exploring the myth of the bobby and the intrusion of the state into social space. International Journal for the Semiotics of Law-Revue internationale de Sémiotique juridique, 27(1): 121–134.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Bull, D. and Stratta, E. 1994. Police community consultation: An examination of its practice in selected constabularies in England and New South Wales, Australia. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Criminology, 27(3): 237–249.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Buller, J. and James, T.S. 2012. Statecraft and the assessment of national political leaders: The case of New Labour and Tony Blair. The British Journal of Politics and International Relations, 14(4): 534–555.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Bullock, K. 2010. Generating and using community intelligence: The case of neighbourhood policing. International Journal of Police Science and Management, 12(1): 1–11.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Bullock, K. 2014. Citizens, community and crime control. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.

  • Bullock, K. 2018. The police use of social media: Transformation or normalisation? Social Policy and Society, 17(2): 245–258.

  • Bullock, K. and Tilley, N. 2009. Born to fail? Policing, reform and neighbourhood problem solving. The Police Journal, 82(2): 117–133.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Bullock, K. and Leeney, D. 2013. Participation, ‘responsivity’ and accountability in neighbourhood policing. Criminology and Criminal Justice, 13(2): 199–214.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Bullock, K. and Sindall, K. 2014. Examining the nature and extent of public participation in neighbourhood policing. Policing and Society, 24(4): 385–404.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Bullock, K., Sidebottom, A., Armitage, R., Ashby, M.P., Clemmow, C., Kirby, S., Laycock, G. and Tilley, N. 2021. Forty years of problem-oriented policing: A review of progress in England and Wales. Policing: A Journal of Policy and Practice, 15(4): 2001–2014.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Burton, S. and McGregor, M. 2018. Enhancing SARA: A new approach in an increasingly complex world. Crime Science, 7(1): 1–5.

  • Callender, M., Cahalin, K., Cole, S.J., Hubbard, L. and Britton, I. 2020. Understanding the motivations, morale, and retention of special constables: Findings from a national survey. Policing: A Journal of Policy and Practice, 14(3): 670–685.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Calver, T. and Wainwright, D. 2018. How cuts changed council spending, in seven charts. BBC News, 5 December. Available at https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-46443700 [Accessed 1 May 2019].

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Cameron, D. 2011. PM’s speech on Big Society. Available at https://www.gov.uk/government/speeches/pms-speech-on-big-society [Accessed 16 July 2019].

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Carr, P.J. 2003. The new parochialism: The implications of the Beltway case for arguments concerning informal social control. American Journal of Sociology 108(6): 1249–1291.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Casey, L. 2008. Engaging communities in fighting crime: A review by Louise Casey. London: Cabinet Office. Available at http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/shared/bsp/hi/pdfs/18_06_08_caseyreport.pdf [Accessed 10 January 2014].

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Charman, S. 2017. Police socialisation, identity and culture: Becoming blue. Cham: Palgrave Macmillan.

  • Christmas, H. and Srivastava, J. 2019. Public health approaches in policing. London: Public Health England, College of Policing.

  • Clark, T. and Taylor, M. 2014. Insecure Britain: Poll shines light on nation’s economic anxiety. The Guardian. Available at https://www.theguardian.com/society/2014/jun/16/insecure-britain-poll-economic-recovery-immigration [Accessed 6 September 2023].

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Clarke, R.V. and Hough, J.M. 1984. Crime and police effectiveness (Vol 81, No 1). London: HMSO.

  • Clarke, R.V. and Goldstein, H. 2002. Reducing theft at construction sites: Lessons from a problem-oriented project. University of Wisconsin Legal Studies Research Paper No. 1338. Available at https://ssrn.com/abstract=2540575

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Clarke, R.V. and Eck, J.E. 2005. Crime analysis for problem solvers in 60 small steps. Washington, DC: US Department of Justice, Office of Community Oriented Policing Services.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Clarke, J., Newman, J., Smith, N., Vidler, E. and Westmarland, L. 2007. Creating citizen-consumers: Changing publics and changing public services. London: SAGE.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Cohen, L.E. and Felson, M. 1979. Social change and crime rate trends: A routine activity approach. American Sociological Review, 44(4): 588–608.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Coleman, J.S. 1988. Social capital in the creation of human capital. American Journal of Sociology, 94: S95–S120.

  • Colover, S. and Quinton, P. 2018. Neighbourhood policing: Impact and implementation. Summary findings from a rapid evidence assessment. Coventry: College of Policing. Available at http://whatworks.college.police.uk/Research/Pages/Published.aspx [Accessed 4 July 2018].

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Constable, J. and Smith, J. 2015. Initial police training and the development of police occupational culture. In P. Wankhade and D. Weir (eds) Police services: Leadership and management perspectives. Cham: Springer, pp45–60.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Cooper, C., Anscombe, J., Avenell, J., McLean, F. and Morris, J. 2006. A national evaluation of community support officers. London: Home Office Research, Development and Statistics Directorate.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • CoP (College of Policing). 2013. Authorised professional practice: Engagement. Available at https://www.college.police.uk/app/engagement-and-communication/engagement [Accessed 19 October 2022].

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • CoP (College of Policing). 2015a. Estimating demand on the police service. Coventry: College of Policing.

  • CoP (College of Policing). 2015b. Delivering neighbourhood policing: A practice stocktake report of survey findings. Coventry: College of Policing. Available at http://library.college.police.uk/docs/college-of-policing/NHP-Stocktake-final-version-V1.pdf [Accessed 17 December 2017].

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • CoP (College of Policing). 2017b. About us. Available at https://www.college.police.uk/About/Pages/default.aspx [Accessed 16 July 2019].

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • CoP (College of Policing). 2017c. Policing Education Qualifications Framework (PEQF). Available at https://www.college.police.uk/What-we-do/Learning/Policing-Education-Qualifications-Framework/Pages/Policing-Education-Qualifications-Framework.aspx [Accessed 16 July 2019].

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • CoP (College of Policing). 2018a. Modernising neighbourhood policing guidelines. Coventry: College of Policing.

  • CoP (College of Policing). 2018b. Neighbourhood policing guidelines: Supporting material for senior leaders. Coventry: College of Policing.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • CoP (College of Policing). 2018c. Neighbourhood policing guidelines: Supporting material for frontline officers, staff and volunteers. Coventry: College of Policing.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • CoP (College of Policing). 2020. Authorised professional practice: Communication. Available at https://www.college.police.uk/app/engagement-and-communication/communication#digital-and-social-media [Accessed 15 November 2022].

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • CoP (College of Policing). 2022. Crime reduction toolkit. Available at https://www.college.police.uk/research/crime-reduction-toolkit [Accessed 12 December 2022].

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Cordner, G. and Biebel, E.P. 2005. Problem-oriented policing in practice. Criminology and Public Policy, 4(2): 155–180.

  • Cosgrove, F. and Ramshaw, P. 2015. It is what you do as well as the way that you do it: The value and deployment of PCSOs in achieving public engagement. Policing and Society, 25(1): 77–96.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Crawford, A. 1999. The local governance of crime: Appeals to community and partnerships. Oxford: Clarendon Press.

  • Crawford, A. 2001. Joined-up but fragmented: Contradiction, ambiguity and ambivalence at the heart of New Labour’s ‘Third Way’. In R. Matthews and J. Pitts (eds) Crime, Disorder and Community Safety: A New Agenda? London: Routledge, pp54–80.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Crawford, A. 2006. ‘Fixing broken promises?’: Neighbourhood wardens and social capital. Urban Studies 43(5–6): 957–976.

  • Crawford, A. and Lister, S. 2004. The patchwork shape of reassurance policing in England and Wales: Integrated local security quilts or frayed, fragmented and fragile tangled webs? Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies and Management, 27(3): 413–430.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Crawford, A. and Lister, S. 2006. Additional security patrols in residential areas: Notes from the marketplace. Policing & Society, 16(2): 164–188.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Crawford, A. and Evans, K. 2017. Crime prevention and community safety. In A. Liebling, S. Maruna and L. McAra (eds) The Oxford handbook of criminology. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp797–824.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Crawford, A., Lister, S. and Wall, D. 2003. Great expectations: Contracted community policing in New Earswick. York: Joseph Rowntree Foundation.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Crawford, A., Lister, S. and Blackburn, S. 2005. Plural policing: The mixed economy of visible patrols in England and Wales. Bristol: Policy Press.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Dalgleish, D. and Myhill, A. 2004. Reassuring the public: A review of international policing interventions. London: Home Office Research, Development and Statistics Directorate.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Davies, A. and Thomas, R. 2008. Dixon of Dock Green got shot! Policing identity work and organizational change. Public Administration, 86(3): 627–642.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • De Graaf, G. and Meijer, A. 2019. Social media and value conflicts: An explorative study of the Dutch police .Public Administration Review, 79(1): 82–92.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • De Graaf, G., Huberts, L. and Smulders, R. 2016. Coping with public value conflicts. Administration & Society, 48(9): 1101–1127.

  • Deuchar, R., Miller, J. and Densley, J. 2019. The lived experience of stop and search in Scotland: There are two sides to every story. Police Quarterly, 22(4): 416–451.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Disney, R. and Simpson, P. 2017. Police workforce and funding in England and Wales. IFS Briefing Note BN208. London: Institute for Fiscal Studies. Available at https://www.ifs.org.uk/uploads/publications/bns/bn208.pdf [Accessed 26 June 2017].

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Ditton, J., Bannister, J., Gilchrist, E. and Farrall, S. 1999. Afraid or angry? Recalibrating the ‘fear’ of crime. International Review of Victimology, 6(2): 83–99.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Downes, D. and Morgan, R. 1997. Dumping the ‘hostages to fortune’? The politics of law and order in post-war Britain. In M. Maguire, R. Morgan and R. Reiner (eds) The Oxford handbook of criminology, 2nd edn. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp87–134.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Eck, J.E. and Spelman, W. 1987. Problem-solving: Problem-oriented policing in Newport News. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, National Institute of Justice.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Eck, J.E. and Rosenbaum, D.P. 1994. The new police order: Effectiveness, equity and efficiency in community policing. In D.P. Rosenbaum (ed) The challenge of community policing: Testing the promises. Newbury Park: SAGE, pp3–26.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Elliott, R. and Nicholls, J. 1996. It’s good to talk: Lessons in public consultation and feedback. London: Home Office Police Research Group.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Farrall, S. and Ditton, J. 1999. Improving the measurement of attitudinal responses: An example from a crime survey .International Journal of Social Research Methodology, 2(1): 55–68.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Fielding, N.G. 2005. Concepts and theory in community policing. The Howard Journal of Criminal Justice, 44(5): 460–472.

  • Finlayson, A. 1999. Third way theory. The Political Quarterly, 70(3): 271–279.

  • Flanagan, R. 2008. The review of policing: Final report. London: Home Office.

  • Fleming, J. and McLaughlin, E. 2012. Through a different lens: Researching the rise and fall of New Labour’s ‘public confidence agenda’. Policing and Society, 22(3): 280–294.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Forrest, S., Myhill, A. and Tilley, N. 2005. Practical lessons for involving the community in crime and disorder problem-solving. London: Home Office.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Foster, J. and Jones, C. 2010. ‘Nice to do’ and essential: Improving neighbourhood policing in an English police force. Policing: A Journal of Policy and Practice, 4(4): 395–402.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Furnham, A. 2000. The brainstorming myth. Business Strategy Review, 11(4): 21–28.

  • Gau, J.M. 2014. Unpacking collective efficacy: The relationship between social cohesion and informal social control. Criminal Justice Studies, 27(2): 210–225.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Giacomantonio, C., Bradford, B., Davies, M. and Martin, R. 2015. Making and breaking barriers: Assessing the value of mounted police units in the UK. Santa Monica and Cambridge: RAND Corporation.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Gill, C., Weisburd, D., Telep, C.W., Vitter, Z. and Bennett, T. 2014. Community-oriented policing to reduce crime, disorder and fear and increase satisfaction and legitimacy among citizens: A systematic review. Journal of Experimental Criminology, 10: 399–428.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Glynn, T.J. 1986. Neighborhood and sense of community. Journal of Community Psychology, 14(4): 341–352.

  • Goldsmith, A. 2015. Disgracebook policing: Social media and the rise of police indiscretion. Policing and Society, 25(3): 249–267.

  • Goldsmith, A. and McLaughlin, E. 2022. Policing’s new vulnerability re-envisioning local accountability in an era of global outrage. The British Journal of Criminology, 62(3): 716–733.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Goldstein, H. 1979. Improving policing: A problem-oriented approach. Crime and Delinquency, 25(2): 236–258.

  • Goldstein, H. 1990. Problem-oriented policing. New York and London: McGraw-Hill.

  • Goldstein, H. 2018. On problem-oriented policing: The Stockholm lecture. Crime Science, 7(1): 1–9.

  • Goodman-Delahunty, J. 2010. Four ingredients: New recipes for procedural justice in Australian policing. Policing: A Journal of Policy and Practice, 4(4): 403–410.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Grace, S. 2020. Policing social distancing: Gaining and maintaining compliance in the age of coronavirus. Policing: A Journal of Policy and Practice, 14(4): 1034–1053.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Granovetter, M.S. 1973. The strength of weak ties. American Journal of Sociology, 78(6): 1360–1380.

  • Grimmelikhuijsen, S.G. and Meijer, A.J. 2015. Does Twitter increase perceived police legitimacy? Public Administration Review, 75(4): 598–607.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Grinc, R.M. 1994. ‘Angels in marble’: Problems in stimulating community involvement in community policing. Crime and Delinquency, 40(3): 437–468.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Hail, Y., Aston, L. and O’Neill, M. 2018. Review of evidence: What effect do enforcement-orientated and engagement-orientated methods of visible policing have on public confidence? Scottish Institute for Policing Research. Available at http://www.sipr.ac.uk/Plugin/Publications/assets/files/Review_methods_of_visible_policing_and_public_confidence_Hail_%20Aston_%20O’Neill.pdf [Accessed 11 May 2019].

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Hand, C. 2022. Police stations closing at the rate of one per week, LBC reveals. LBC, 30 November. Available at https://www.lbc.co.uk/news/police-stations-closing-one-per-week-lbc-reveals/ [Accessed 30 November 2022].

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Hardy, C., Lawrence, T.B. and Grant, D. 2005. Discourse and collaboration: The role of conversations and collective identity. Academy of Management Review, 30(1): 58–77.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Harfield, C.G. 1997. Consent, consensus or the management of dissent? Challenges to community consultation in a new policing environment. Policing and Society, 7(4): 271–289.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Harinam, V., Bavcevic, Z. and Ariel, B. 2022. Spatial distribution and developmental trajectories of crime versus crime severity: Do not abandon the count-based model just yet. Crime Science, 11(1): 1–15.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Harkin, D. 2014. ‘Civilizing policing’? What can police-public consultation forums achieve for police reform, ‘democratic policing’ and police legitimacy? PhD thesis, University of Edinburgh. Available at https://www.era.lib.ed.ac.uk/handle/1842/14178 [Accessed 5 June 2016].

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Harkin, D. 2015. Simmel, the police form and the limits of democratic policing. British Journal of Criminology, 55(4): 730–746.

  • Harkin, D. 2018. Community safety partnerships: The limits and possibilities of ‘policing with the community’. Crime Prevention and Community Safety, 20(2): 125–136.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Hawdon, J. 2008. Legitimacy, trust, social capital and policing styles: A theoretical statement. Police Quarterly, 11(2): 182–201.

  • Herbert, S. 2006. Tangled up in blue: Conflicting paths to police legitimacy. Theoretical Criminology, 10(4): 481–504.

  • Higgins, A. 2017. Neighbourhood policing: A police force typology. London: The Police Foundation. Available at http://www.police-foundation.org.uk/publication/neighbourhood-policing-a-police-force-typology/ [Accessed 10 May 2017].

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Higgins, A. 2018. The future of neighbourhood policing. London: The Police Foundation. Available at http://www.police-foundation.org.uk/publication/future-neighbourhood-policing/ [Accessed 30 May 2019].

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Higgins, A. and Hales, G. 2017. Police effectiveness in a changing world paper 4: A natural experiment in neighbourhood policing. London: The Police Foundation. Available at http://www.police-foundation.org.uk/2017/wp-content/uploads/2017/06/changing_world_paper_4.pdf [Accessed 15 February 2017].

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Hipp, J.R. 2016. Collective efficacy: How is it conceptualized, how is it measured and does it really matter for understanding perceived neighborhood crime and disorder? Journal of Criminal Justice, 46: 32–44.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Hipp, J.R. and Kim, Y.A. 2017. Measuring crime concentration across cities of varying sizes: Complications based on the spatial and temporal scale employed. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 33(3): 595–632.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • HMIC (Her Majesty’s Inspectorate of Constabulary). 2008. Serving neighbourhoods and individuals: A thematic report on neighbourhood policing and developing citizen focus policing. London: HMIC. Available at https://www.justiceinspectorates.gov.uk/hmicfrs/media/serving-neighbourhoods-and-individuals-20081031.pdf [Accessed 25 May 2019].

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • HMIC (Her Majesty’s Inspectorate of Constabulary). 2010. Anti-social behaviour: Stop the rot. London: HMIC.

  • HMIC (Her Majesty’s Inspectorate of Constabulary). 2013. Policing in austerity: Rising to the challenge. London: HMIC.

  • HMIC (Her Majesty’s Inspectorate of Constabulary). 2017. PEEL: Police effectiveness 2016. A national overview. London: HMIC.

  • HMICFRS (Her Majesty’s Inspectorate of Constabulary and Fire and Rescue Services). 2020. A call for help: Police contact management through call handling and control rooms in 2018/19. Available at https://www.justiceinspectorates.gov.uk/hmicfrs/wp-content/uploads/a-call-for-help-police-contact-management-call-handling-control-rooms-2018-19.pdf [Accessed 19 August 2022].

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • HMICFRS (Her Majesty’s Inspectorate of Constabulary and Fire and Rescue Services). 2021a. Policing in the pandemic: The police response to the coronavirus pandemic during 2020. Available at https://www.justiceinspectorates.gov.uk/hmicfrs/publication-html/the-police-response-to-the-coronavirus-pandemic-during-2020/ [Accessed 1 December 2022].

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • HMICFRS (Her Majesty’s Inspectorate of Constabulary and Fire and Rescue Services). 2021b. The Sarah Everard vigil: An inspection of the Metropolitan Police Service’s policing of a vigil held in commemoration of Sarah Everard on Clapham Common on Saturday 13 March 2021. Available at https://www.justiceinspectorates.gov.uk/hmicfrs/wp-content/uploads/inspection-of-mps-policing-vigil-commemoration-sarah-everard-clapham-common.pdf/ [Accessed 1 December 2022].

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • HMICFRS (Her Majesty’s Inspectorate of Constabulary and Fire & Rescue Services). 2022. State of policing: The annual assessment of Policing in England and Wales 2021. London: Her Majesty’s Chief Inspector of Constabulary and Fire & Rescue Services. Available at: https://www.justiceinspectorates.gov.uk/hmicfrs/wp-content/uploads/State-of-policing-2021-1-single-page.pdf [Accessed 5 September 2023].

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • HMICS (Her Majesty’s Inspectorate of Constabulary for Scotland). 2002. Narrowing the gap: Police visibility and public reassurance. Edinburgh: The Stationery Office.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Hohl, K., Bradford, B. and Stanko, E.A. 2010. Influencing trust and confidence in the London Metropolitan Police: Results from an experiment testing the effect of leaflet drops on public opinion. British Journal of Criminology, 50(3): 491–513.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Holdaway, S. 1977. Changes in urban policing. British Journal of Sociology, 28(2): 119–137.

  • Home Office. 2003. Building safer communities together. London: HMSO.

  • Home Office. 2004a. Building communities, beating crime. London: HMSO.

  • Home Office. 2004b. Confident communities in a secure Britain: The Home Office strategic plan 2004–08. London: HMSO.

  • Home Office. 2006. Neighbourhood policing progress report May 2006. London: HMSO.

  • Home Office. 2009. Protecting the public: Supporting the police to succeed. London: HMSO.

  • Home Office. 2010a. Policing in the 21st century: Reconnecting police and the people. London: Home Office.

  • Home Office. 2010b. Safe and confident neighbourhoods strategy: Next steps in neighbourhood policing. London: Home Office.

  • Home Office. 2021. Beating crime plan. Available at https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/beating-crime-plan/beating-crime-plan [Accessed 13 July 2022].

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Hope, T. 2005. The new local governance of community safety in England and Wales. Canadian Journal of Criminology and Criminal Justice, 47(2): 369–388.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Hough, M. 2017. The discovery of fear of crime in the UK. In M. Lee and G. Mythen (eds) The Routledge international handbook on fear of crime. New York: Routledge, pp35–46.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Hough, M. and Tilley, N. 1998. Auditing crime and disorder: Guidance for local partnerships. London: Home Office, Police Research Group.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • House of Commons Home Affairs Committee. 2018. Policing for the future. Tenth Report of Session 2017–19. Report, together with formal minutes relating to the report. London: HMSO.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Hughes, G. and Gilling, D. 2004. ‘Mission impossible’? The habitus of the community safety manager and the new expertise in the local partnership governance of crime and safety. Criminal Justice, 4: 129–149.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Hughes, G. and Rowe, M. 2007. Neighbourhood policing and community safety: Researching the instabilities of the local governance of crime, disorder and security in contemporary UK. Criminology and Criminal Justice, 7(4): 317–346.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • The Independent. 2010. Police cuts need not affect front line, says Theresa May. The Independent, 18 November. Available at https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/police-cuts-need-not-affect-front-line-says-theresa-may-2137551.html [Accessed 16 July 2019].

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Innes, M. 2004. Reinventing tradition? Reassurance, neighbourhood security and policing. Criminal Justice, 4(2): 151–171.

  • Innes, M. 2005a. Why ‘soft’ policing is hard: On the curious development of reassurance policing, how it became neighbourhood policing and what this signifies about the politics of police reform .Journal of Community and Applied Social Psychology, 15(3): 156–169.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Innes, M. 2005b. What’s your problem? Signal crimes and citizen-focused problem solving. Criminology and Public Policy, 4(2): 187–200.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Innes, M. 2007. The reassurance function. Policing: A Journal of Policy and Practice, 1(2): 132–141.

  • Innes, M. and Fielding, N. 2002. From community to communicative policing: ‘Signal crimes’ and the problem of public reassurance. Sociological Research Online, 7(2): 1–12.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Innes, M. and Roberts, C. 2008. Reassurance policing, community intelligence and the co-production of neighbourhood order. In T. Williamson (ed) The handbook of knowledge-based policing: Current conceptions and future directions. London: Wiley and Sons, pp241–262.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Innes, M. and Weston, N. 2010. Re-thinking the policing of anti-social behaviour. London: HMIC.

  • Innes, M., Roberts, C., Innes, H. and Lowe, T. 2020. Neighbourhood policing: The rise and fall of a policing model. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Irving, B. 1986. Independent evaluation of an experiment in neighbourhood policing in Notting Hill. London: Police Foundation.

  • Irving, B., Bird, C., Hibberd, M. and Willmore, J. 1989. Neighbourhood policing: The natural history of a policing experiment. London: Police Foundation.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Jack, K., Frondigoun, L. and Smith, R. 2021. Implementing an asset-based approach: A case study of innovative community policing from Hawkhill, Scotland. The Police Journal, 94(3): 353–371.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Jackson, J. and Sunshine, J. 2007. Public confidence in policing. The British Journal of Criminology, 47(2): 214–233.

  • Jackson, J. and Bradford, B. 2009. Crime, policing and social order: On the expressive nature of public confidence in policing. The British Journal of Sociology, 60(3): 493–521.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Jackson, J. and Bradford, B. 2010. What is trust and confidence in the police? Policing: A Journal of Policy and Practice, 4(3): 241–248.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Jacques, P. 2022. Humberside Police congratulated for ‘outstanding’ performance. 25 November. Available at https://www.policeprofessional.com/news/humberside-police-congratulated-for-outstanding-performance/ [Accessed 10 December 2022].

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Jessop, B. 2000. The dynamics of partnership and governance failure: The new politics of local governance in Britain. In G. Stoker (ed) The new politics of local governance in Britain. Basingstoke: Macmillan, pp11–32.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Johnston, L. 2003. From ‘pluralisation’ to ‘the police extended family’: Discourses on the governance of community policing in Britain. International Journal of the Sociology of Law, 31(3): 185–204.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Johnston, L. 2007. ‘Keeping the family together’: Police Community Support Officers and the ‘police extended family’ in London. Policing & Society, 17(2): 119–140.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Jones, T. and Newburn, T. 2001. Widening access: Improving police relations with hard to reach groups. London: Home Office, Policing and Reducing Crime Unit.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Kelling, G.L., Pate, T., Dieckman, D. and Brown, C. 1974. The Kansas City preventive patrol experiment: A technical report. Washington, DC: Police Foundation.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Kleinhans, R. and Bolt, G. 2014. More than just fear: On the intricate interplay between perceived neighborhood disorder, collective efficacy, and action .Journal of Urban Affairs, 36(3): 420–446.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Kochel, T.R. and Weisburd, D. 2017. Assessing community consequences of implementing hot spots policing in residential areas: Findings from a randomized field trial. Journal of Experimental Criminology, 13(2): 143–170.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Kretzmann, J. and McKnight, J. 1993. Building communities from the inside out: A path toward finding and mobilizing a community’s assets. Chicago: The Asset-Based Community Development Institute.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Labour Party. 2022. Britain in 2030: Stronger together for safe and secure communities. Available at https://labour.org.uk/stronger-together/britain-2030/safe-communities/ [Accessed 9 November 2022].

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Leigh, A., Read, T., Tilley, N. and Webb, B. 1996. Problem-oriented policing: Brit pop. London: Home Office Police Research Group.

  • Lentz, S.A. and Chaires, R.H. 2007. The invention of Peel’s principles: A study of policing ‘textbook’ history. Journal of Criminal Justice, 35(1): 69–79.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Lewis, P., Newburn, T., Taylor, M., Mcgillivray, C., Greenhill, A., Frayman, H. and Proctor, R. 2011. Reading the riots: Investigating England’s summer of disorder. London: The London School of Economics and Political Science and the Guardian.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Lind, E.A. and Tyler, T.R. 1988. The social psychology of procedural justice. New York and London: Plenum Press.

  • Lipsky, M. 1980. Street-level bureaucracy: Dilemmas of the individual in public services. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.

  • Lister, S. 2014. Scrutinising the role of the Police and Crime Panel in the new era of police governance in England and Wales. Safer Communities, 13(1): 22–31.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Lister, S. and Rowe, M. 2015. Electing police and crime commissioners in England and Wales: Prospecting for the democratisation of policing. Policing and Society, 25(4): 358–377.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Lister, S., Adams, B. and Phillips, S. 2015. Evaluation of police-community engagement practices: An exploratory knowledge platform for policing: Exploiting knowledge assets, utilising data and piloting research co-production. University of Leeds. Available at http://www.law.leeds.ac.uk/research/projects/an-exploratory-knowledge-platform-for-policing/ [Accessed 30 August 2017].

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Loader, I. 1997. Policing and the social: Questions of symbolic power. British Journal of Sociology, 48(1): 1–18.

  • Loader, I. 2000. Plural policing and democratic governance. Social and Legal Studies, 9(3): 323–345.

  • Loader, I. 2006. Policing, recognition, and belonging. The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 605(1): 201–221.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Loader, I. 2020. Revisiting the police mission: Strategic review of policing in England and Wales. London: The Police Foundation.

  • Loader, I. and Sparks, R. 2012. Beyond lamentation: Towards a democratic egalitarian politics of crime and justice. In T. Newburn and J. Peay (eds) Policing: Politics, culture and control. London: Hart, pp11–41.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Loftus, B. 2009. Police culture in a changing world. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

  • Lombardo, R.M., Olson, D. and Staton, M. 2010. The Chicago alternative policing strategy: A reassessment of the CAPS program. Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies and Management, 33(4): 586–606.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Longstaff, A., Willer, J., Chapman, J., Czarnomski, S. and Graham, J. 2015. Neighbourhood policing: Past, present and future. London: The Police Foundation.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Loveday, B. and Smith, R. 2015. A critical evaluation of current and future roles of police community support officers and neighbourhood wardens within the Metropolitan Police Service and London boroughs: Utilising ‘low-cost high-value’ support services in a period of financial austerity. International Journal of Police Science and Management, 17(2): 74–80.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Mackenzie, S. and Henry, A. 2009. Community policing: A review of the evidence. Edinburgh: Scottish Government Social Research.

  • Manning, P.K. 1997. Police work: the social organisation of policing, 2nd edn. Prospect Heights: Waveland Press Inc.

  • Marenin, O. 1998. The goal of democracy in international police assistance programs. Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies and Management, 21(1): 159–177.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Mastrofski, S.D. 2006. Community policing: A skeptical view. In D. Weisburd and A.A. Braga (eds) Police innovation: Contrasting perspectives. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp44–73.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Mathie, A. and Cunningham, G. 2003. From clients to citizens: Asset-based community development as a strategy for community-driven development. Development in Practice, 13(5): 474–486.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • May, T. 2011. Speech to the Conservative Party Conference. 4 October. Available at https://www.politics.co.uk/comment-analysis/2011/10/04/theresa-may-speech-in-full [Accessed 14 March 2015]

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • May, T. 2015. Home Secretary at the Police Reform Summit. Speech. 8 December. Available at https://www.gov.uk/government/speeches/home-secretary-at-the-police-reform-summit [Accessed 16 July 2019].

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • McCarthy, D. and O’Neill, M. 2014. The police and partnership working: Reflections on recent research. Policing: A Journal of Policy and Practice, 8(3): 243–253.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • McLaughlin, E. 2005. Forcing the issue: New Labour, new localism and the democratic renewal of police accountability. The Howard Journal of Criminal Justice, 44(5): 473–489.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • McLaughlin, E. 2008. ‘Last one out, turn off the “blue lamp”’: The geographical ‘placing’ of police performance management. Policing: A Journal of Policy and Practice, 2(3): 266–275.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • McLaughlin, E. and Murji, K. 1998. Resistance through representation: ‘Storylines’, advertising and police federation campaigns. Policing and Society, 8(4): 367–399.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Millie, A. 2012. Police stations, architecture and public reassurance. British Journal of Criminology, 52(6): 1092–1112.

  • Millie, A. 2013. The policing task and the expansion (and contraction) of British policing. Criminology and Criminal Justice, 13(2): 143–160.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Millie, A. and Bullock, K. 2012. Re-imagining policing post-austerity. British Academy Review, 19: 16–18.

  • Morgan, R. and Maggs, C. 1985. Setting the P.A.C.E. police community consultation arrangements in England and Wales. Bath: Centre for the Analysis of Social Policy, University of Bath.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Morgan, R. and Newburn, T. 1997. The future of policing. Oxford: Clarendon Press.

  • Murphy, C. and Muir, G. 1985. Community-based policing: A review of the critical issues. Ottawa: Solicitor General of Canada.

  • Mutongwizo, T., Holley, C., Shearing, C.D. and Simpson, N.P. 2021. Resilience policing: An emerging response to shifting harm landscapes and reshaping community policing. Policing: A Journal of Policy and Practice, 15(1): 606–621.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Myhill, A. 2006. Community engagement in policing: Lessons from the literature. London: Home Office.

  • Myhill, A. and Beak, K. 2008. Public confidence in the police. London: National Police Improvement Agency (NPIA).

  • Myhill, A., Dalgleish, D., Docking, M., Myhill, A. and Yarrow, S. 2003. The role of police authorities in public engagement. London: Home Office.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • NCIS (National Criminal Intelligence Service). 2000. The national intelligence model. London: NCIS.

  • Newman, J. 2001. Joined-up government: The politics of partnership. In L. Budd, J. Charlesworth and R. Paton (eds) Making policy happen. London: Routledge, pp194–200.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Nilsson, M. and Jonsson, C. 2023. Building relational peace: Police-community relations in post-accord Colombia. Policing and Society, 33(5): 518–536.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Nisbet, R. 1953. The quest for community. New York: Orford.

  • NPCC (National Police Chiefs’ Council). 2017. Better understanding demand: Policing the future. London: NPCC Performance Management Coordination Committee

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • NPIA (National Policing Improvement Agency). 2010. Local policing and confidence. London: NPIA.

  • Ofcom (Office of Communications). 2018. Adults’ media use and attitudes report 2018. London: Ofcom.

  • O’Malley, L. and Grace, S. 2021. Social capital and co-location: A case study of policing anti-social behaviour. International Journal of Police Science and Management, 23(3): 306–316.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • O’Neill, M. 2015. The case for the acceptable ‘other’: The impact of partnerships, PCSOs and neighbourhood policing on diversity in policing. Policing: A Journal of Policy and Practice, 9(1): 77–88.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • ONS (Office for National Statistics). 2021. Confidence in the local police. Available at https://www.ethnicity-facts-figures.service.gov.uk/crime-justice-and-the-law/policing/confidence-in-the-local-police/latest [Accessed 6 September 2023].

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • O’Reilly, C. 2020. Neighbourhood policing: Community, confidence and legitimacy in a London borough. PhD thesis, Anglia Ruskin University. Available at https://arro.anglia.ac.uk/id/eprint/706855/ [Accessed 19 December 2022].

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • O’Reilly, C. 2021. Key issues in contemporary policing: Models of police and policing. Policing Insight, 13 April. Available at https://policinginsight.com/features/key-issues-in-contemporary-policing-models-police-policing/ [Accessed 17 December 2022].

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • O’Reilly, C. 2023. Doing the right thing? Value conflicts and community policing. Policing and Society, 33(1): 1–17.

  • O’Reilly, C., Agnew-Pauley, W. and Lundrigan, S. 2022. Restoring public confidence through the delivery of improved community policing in Rackhamshire. Safer Communities, 21(2): 69–84.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • PA Consulting Group. 2001. Diary of a police officer. Police Research Series Paper 149. London: Home Office.

  • Paskell, C. 2007. ‘Plastic police’ or ‘community support’? The role of Police Community Support Officers within low-income neighbourhoods. European Urban and Regional Studies, 14(4): 349–361.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Pate, A.M., Wycoff, M.A., Skogan, W.G. and Sherman, L.W. 1986. Reducing fear of crime in Houston and Newark. Washington, DC: Police Foundation.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Peaslee, L. 2009. Community policing and social service partnerships: Lessons from New England. Police Practice and Research, 10(2): 115–131.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Pepper, I. 2014. Do part-time volunteer police officers aspire to be regular police officers? The Police Journal, 87(2): 105–113.

  • Perkins, M. 2016. Modelling public confidence of the police: How perceptions of the police differ between neighborhoods in a city. Police Practice and Research, 17(2): 113–125.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Pickles, E. 2010. Eric Pickles ‘shows us the money ’. Ministry of Housing, Communities and Local Government, 12 August. Available at https://www.gov.uk/government/news/eric-pickles-shows-us-the-money-as-departmental-books-are-opened-to-an-army-of-armchair-auditors [Accessed 11 December 2022].

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Police Federation of England and Wales and Police Superintendents’ Association. 1990. Operational policing review 1990. Surbiton: Police Federation Joint Consultative Committee.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Police Foundation. 2022. A new mode of protection: Final report of the strategic review of policing in England and Wales. London: Police Foundation.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Povey, K. 2001. Open all hours: A thematic inspection report on the role of police visibility and accessibility in public reassurance. London: HMIC.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Putnam, R.D. 1995a. Bowling alone: America’s declining social capital. Journal of Democracy, 6(1): 65–78.

  • Putnam, R.D. 1995b. Tuning in, tuning out: The strange disappearance of social capital in America. Political Science and Politics, 28(4): 664–683.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Quinton, P. 2011. The impact of information about crime and policing on public perceptions: The results of a randomised controlled trial. London: NPIA.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Quinton, P. and Tuffin, R. 2007. Neighbourhood change: The impact of the national reassurance policing programme. Policing: A Journal of Policy and Practice, 1(2): 149–160.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Quinton, P. and Morris, J. 2008. Neighbourhood policing: The impact of piloting and early national implementation. London: Home Office.

  • Radburn, M. and Stott, C. 2019. The social psychological processes of ‘procedural justice’: Concepts, critiques and opportunities. Criminology and Criminal Justice, 19(4): 421–438.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Ratcliffe, J.H. 2018. Reducing crime: A companion for police leaders. Abingdon and New York: Routledge.

  • Ralph, L. 2022. The dynamic nature of police legitimacy on social media. Policing and Society, 32(7): 817–831.

  • Ralph, L., Jones, M., Rowe, M. and Millie, A. 2022. Maintaining police-citizen relations on social media during the COVID-19 pandemic. Policing and Society, 32(6): 764–777.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Read, T. and Tilley, N. 2000. Not rocket science? Problem-solving and crime reduction. London: Home Office.

  • Reiner, R. 2009. Consent. In A. Wakefield and J. Fleming (eds) The SAGE dictionary of policing. London: SAGE, pp52–54.

  • Reiner, R. 2010. The politics of the police. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

  • Reiner, R. 2013. Who governs? Democracy, plutocracy, science and prophecy in policing. Criminology and Criminal Justice, 13(2): 161–180.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Rhodes, R.A.W. 1997. Understanding governance: Policy networks, governance, reflexivity and accountability. Buckingham: Open University Press.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Rix, A., Joshua, F., Maguire, M. and Morton, S. 2009. Improving public confidence in the police: A review of the evidence. London: Home Office Research, Development and Statistics Directorate.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Robinson, A. 2006. Police community support officers: A literature and policy review. Sheffield: Hallam Centre for Community Justice.

  • Rogers, B. and Houston, T. 2004. Re-inventing the police station: Police-public relations, reassurance and the future of the police estate. London: IPPR.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Rogers, C. 2016 .Plural policing: Theory and practice. Bristol: Policy Press.

  • Roth, J.A., Ryan, J., Gaffigan, S., Koper, C., Moore, M., Roehl, J. et al. 2000. National evaluation of the COPS program: Title I of the 1994 Crime Act. US Washington, DC : U.S. Department of Justice, National Institute of Justice.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Salisbury, H. 2004. Public attitudes to the criminal justice system: The impact of providing information to British Crime Survey respondents. London: Home Office.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Salmi, S., Voeten, M.J. and Keskinen, E. 2000. Relation between police image and police visibility. Journal of Community and Applied Social Psychology, 10(6): 433–447.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Sampson, R.J. 2002. Transcending tradition: New directions in community research, Chicago style. Criminology, 40(2): 213–230.

  • Savage, S.P. 2007a. Police reform: Forces for change. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

  • Savage, S.P. 2007b. Neighbourhood policing and the reinvention of the constable. Policing: A Journal of Policy and Practice, 1(2): 203–213.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Scarman, L.G. 1982 .The Scarman report: The Brixton disorders, 10–12 April 1981. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books.

  • Scott, J.D. 2002. Assessing the relationship between police-community coproduction and neighborhood-level social capital. Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice, 18(2): 147–166.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Sheldon, D. 2021. Policing the pandemic: Maintaining compliance and legitimacy during Covid-19. King’s Law Journal, 32(1): 14–25.

  • Sherman, L.W. 2013. The rise of evidence-based policing: Targeting, testing, and tracking. Crime and Justice, 42(1): 377–451.

  • Sherman, L.W. and Weisburd, D. 1995. General deterrent effects of police patrol in crime ‘hot spots’: A randomized, controlled trial. Justice Quarterly, 12(4): 625–648.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Sherman, L.W. and Eck, J.E. 2003. Policing for crime prevention. In D. Farrington, D. Layton MacKenzie, L.W. Sherman and B.C. Welsh (eds) Evidence-based crime prevention. London: Routledge, pp309–343.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Sherman, L.W., Gartin, P.R. and Buerger, M.E. 1989. Hot spots of predatory crime: Routine activities and the criminology of place. Criminology, 27(1): 27–56.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Sherman, L.W., Neyroud, P.W. and Neyroud, E. 2016. The Cambridge crime harm index: Measuring total harm from crime based on sentencing guidelines. Policing: A Journal of Policy and Practice, 10(3): 171–183.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Sidebottom, A. and Tilley, N. 2011. Improving problem-oriented policing: The need for a new model? Crime Prevention and Community Safety, 13(2): 79–101.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Sidebottom, A., Bullock, K., Armitage, R., Ashby, M., Clemmow, C., Kirby, S.,Laycock, G. and Tilley, N. 2020. Problem-oriented policing in England and Wales 2019. Coventry: College of Policing.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Silver, E. and Miller, L.L. 2004. Sources of informal social control in Chicago neighborhoods. Criminology, 42(3): 551–584.

  • Simmel, G. 2009. Sociology: Inquiries into the construction of social forms. Leiden and Boston: Brill.

  • Simpson, R. 2017. The Police Officer Perception Project (POPP): An experimental evaluation of factors that impact perceptions of the police. Journal of Experimental Criminology, 13(3): 393–415.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Sindall, K. and Sturgis, P. 2013. Austerity policing: Is visibility more important than absolute numbers in determining public confidence in the police? European Journal of Criminology, 10(2): 137–153.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Singer, L. 2004. Reassurance policing: An evaluation of the local management of community safety. London: Home Office Research, Development and Statistics Directorate.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Singer, L. and Cooper, S. 2009. Improving public confidence in the criminal justice system: An evaluation of a communication activity. The Howard Journal of Criminal Justice, 48(5): 485–500.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Skogan, W.G. 2006. Asymmetry in the impact of encounters with police. Policing & Society, 16(2): 99–126.

  • Skogan, W.G. 2008. An overview of community policing: Origins, concepts and implementation. In T. Williamson (ed) The handbook of knowledge based policing: Current conceptions and future directions. Chichester: John Wiley and Sons, pp43–58.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Skogan, W.G. and Hartnett, S.M. 1997. Community policing, Chicago style. New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press.

  • Skogan, W.G. and Steiner, L. 2004. CAPS at ten: Community policing in Chicago. An evaluation of Chicago’s alternative policing strategy. Chicago: Institute for Policy Research, Northwestern University.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Skogan, W.G., Hartnett, S.M., Comey, J.T., Dubois, J. and Kaiser, M. 1999. On the beat: Police and community problem solving. Boulder: Westview Press. Available at http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.685.8354andrep=rep1andtype=pdf [Accessed 25 May 2019].

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Smith, R. and Somerville, P. 2013. The long goodbye: A note on the closure of rural police-stations and the decline of rural policing in Britain. Policing: A Journal of Policy and Practice, 7(4): 348–358.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Sorg, E.T., Haberman, C.P., Ratcliffe, J.H. and Groff, E.R. 2013. Foot patrol in violent crime hot spots: The longitudinal impact of deterrence and posttreatment effects of displacement. Criminology, 51(1): 65–101.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Spelman, W. 1995. Criminal careers of public places. Crime and Place, 4: 115–144.

  • Stanko, E.A. and Dawson, P. 2016. Police use of research evidence: Recommendations for improvement. Cham: Springer International Publishing.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Stanley, L. 2016. Legitimacy gaps, taxpayer conflict and the politics of austerity in the UK. The British Journal of Politics and International Relations, 18(2): 389–406.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Stevens, J. 2013. Policing for a better Britain: Report of the independent police commission. London: Independent Police Commission.

  • Stewart, J. 2009. Public policy values. London: Palgrave Macmillan.

  • Stott, C., Radburn, M., Pearson, G., Kyprianides, A., Harrison, M. and Rowlands, D. 2022. Police powers and public assemblies: Learning from the Clapham Common ‘vigil’ during the Covid-19 pandemic. Policing: A Journal of Policy and Practice, 16(1): 73–94.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Sutherland, J. 2014. The PCSO review: An evaluation of the role, value and establishment of police community support officers within Cambridgeshire Constabulary. Huntingdon: Cambridgeshire Constabulary.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Szczepaniak, A. 2007. The place of the Royal Canadian Mounted Police in the perception of Canada as a ‘safe place’. In C. Bates, G. Huggan, M. Marinkova and J. Orr (eds) Visions of Canada – visions du Canada. Brno: Central European Association for Canadian Studies, pp35–49.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Szreter, S. 2002. The state of social capital: Bringing back in power, politics and history. Theory and Society, 31(5): 573–621.

  • Szreter, S. and Woolcock, M. 2004. Health by association? Social capital, social theory and the political economy of public health. International Journal of Epidemiology, 33(4): 650–667.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Telep, C.W. and Weisburd, D. 2012. What is known about the effectiveness of police practices in reducing crime and disorder? Police Quarterly, 15(4): 331–357.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Terpstra, J. and Fyfe, N.R. 2015. Mind the implementation gap? Police reform and local policing in the Netherlands and Scotland. Criminology & Criminal Justice, 15(5): 527–544.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Terpstra, J., Fyfe, N.R. and Salet, R. 2019. The abstract police: A conceptual exploration of unintended changes of police organisations. The Police Journal, 92(4): 339–359.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Thacher, D. and Rein, M. 2004. Managing value conflict in public policy. Governance, 17(4): 457–486.

  • Tilley, N. 2008. The development of community policing in England: Networks, knowledge and neighbourhoods. In T. Williamson (ed) The handbook of knowledge based policing: Current conceptions and future directions. Chichester: John Wiley and Sons Ltd, pp95–116.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Tilley, N. 2010. Whither problem-oriented policing. Criminology and Public Policy, 9(1): 183–195.

  • Tilley, N. and Scott, M.S. 2012. The past, present and future of POP. Policing: A Journal of Policy and Practice, 6(2): 122–132.

  • Tobitt, C. 2021. Survey shows people more likely to trust local news produced on patch – and willing to pay average of £1.30 per month. Press Gazette, 30 September. Available at https://pressgazette.co.uk/news/survey-people-more-likely-to-trust-local-news-produced-on-patch-pay-average-of-1-30-month/ [Accessed 3 December 2022].

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Tuffin, R., Morris, J. and Poole, A. 2006. An evaluation of the impact of the National Reassurance Policing Programme (Vol 296). London: Home Office Research, Development and Statistics Directorate.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Turley, C., Ranns, H., Callanan, M., Blackwell, A. and Newburn, T. 2012. Delivering neighbourhood policing in partnership. London: Home Office.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Tyler, T.R. 2004. Enhancing police legitimacy. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 593: 84–99.

  • Tyler, T.R. 2006. Why people obey the law. Princeton and Oxford: Princeton University Press.

  • Tyler, T.R. and Fagan, J. 2008. Legitimacy and cooperation: Why do people help the police fight crime in their communities? Ohio State Journal of Criminology, 6(231): 231–275.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Uchida, C.D. 1993. The development of the American police: An historical overview. Critical Issues in Policing: Contemporary Readings, 3: 19–35.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Ungoed-Thomas, J., Harper, T. and Shveda, K. 2018 . 600 police stations shut in eight years. The Sunday Times, 2 September. Available at https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/600-police-stations-shut-in-eight-years-nvjdjwmwj [Accessed 16 June 2019].

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Vidler, E. and Clarke, J. 2005. Creating citizen-consumers: New Labour and the remaking of public services. Public Policy and Administration, 20(2): 19–37.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Waddington, P.A. 1999. Police (canteen) sub-culture: An appreciation. The British Journal of Criminology, 39(2): 287–309.

  • Wakefield, A. 2006. The value of foot patrol: A review of research. London: Police Foundation.

  • Wakefield, A. 2007. Continuing the discussion on community policing, issue 2 carry on constable? Revaluing foot patrol. Policing: A Journal of Policy and Practice, 1(3): 342–355.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Wallace, A. 2010. New neighbourhoods, new citizens? Challenging ‘community’ as a framework for social and moral regeneration under New Labour in the UK. International Journal of Urban and Regional Research, 34(4): 805–819.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Walsh, J.P. and O’Connor, C. 2019. Social media and policing: A review of recent research. Sociology Compass, 13(1): 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1111/soc4.12648

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Walzer, M. 1994. Thick and thin: Moral argument at home and abroad. Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press.

  • Weisburd, D. 2018. Hot spots of crime and place-based prevention .Criminology and Public Policy, 17(1): 5–25.

  • Wilson, H. 1963. Labour’s plan for science. London: Labour Party.

  • Wilson, J.Q. and Kelling, G.L. 1982. Broken windows. Atlantic Monthly, 249(3): 29–38.

  • Wood, J., Sorg, E.T., Groff, E.R., Ratcliffe, J.H. and Taylor, C.J. 2014. Cops as treatment providers: Realities and ironies of police work in a foot patrol experiment. Policing and Society, 24(3): 362–379.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Wood, M.A. and McGovern, A. 2021. Memetic copaganda: Understanding the humorous turn in police image work. Crime, Media, Culture, 17(3): 305–326.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Wünsch, D. and Hohl, K. 2009. Evidencing a ‘good practice model’ of police communication: The impact of local policing newsletters on public confidence. Policing: A Journal of Policy and Practice, 3(4): 331–339.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Zhao, J.S., Schneider, M. and Thurman, Q. 2002. The effect of police presence on public fear reduction and satisfaction: A review of the literature. The Justice Professional, 15(3): 273–299.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

Content Metrics

May 2022 onwards Past Year Past 30 Days
Abstract Views 820 582 47
Full Text Views 2 1 1
PDF Downloads 5 1 1

Altmetrics