The lasting imprint of childhood disadvantage: cumulative histories of exposure to childhood adversity and trajectories of psychological distress in adulthood

Authors:
Loanna S. Heidinger University of Western Ontario, Canada

Search for other papers by Loanna S. Heidinger in
Current site
Google Scholar Close
 PhD
and
Andrea E. Willson University of Western Ontario, Canada

Search for other papers by Andrea E. Willson in
Current site
Google Scholar Close
 PhD
Article Category:
Research Article
Copyright:
© Authors 2022
Online Publication Date:
01 Jul 2021
Pages:
121–144
Publisher:
Bristol University Press
Volume/Issue:
Volume 13: Issue 1
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.1332/175795921X16223516066150
Restricted access
Get eTOC alerts
Rights and permissions Cite this article
Buy article/chapter (
GBP  £25.00
)

This study contributes to the literature on the long-term effects of childhood disadvantage on mental health by estimating the association between patterns of cumulative childhood adversity on trajectories of psychological distress in adulthood. There is little research that investigates how compositional variations in the accumulation of childhood adversity may initiate distinct processes of disadvantage and differentially shape trajectories of psychological distress across the adult life course. Using the Panel Study of Income Dynamics’ Childhood Retrospective Circumstance Study and latent class analysis, we first identify distinct classes representing varied histories of exposure to childhood adversities using 25 indicators of adversity across multiple childhood domains. Next, the latent classes are included as predictors of trajectories of psychological distress in adulthood. The results demonstrate that patterns of experiences of childhood adversity are associated with higher levels of adult psychological distress that persists, and in some cases worsens, in adulthood, contributing to disparities in mental health across the life course.

  • Adkins, D.E., Wang, V., Dupre, M.E., van den Oord, J.C.G. and Elder, G.H. Jr (2009) Structure and stress: trajectories of depressive symptoms across adolescence and young adulthood, Social Forces, 88(1): 31–60. doi: 10.1353/sof.0.0238

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Akaike, H. (1987) Factor analysis and AIC, Psychometrika, 52(3): 317–32. doi: 10.1007/BF02294359

  • Anda, R.F., Brown, D.W., Dube, S.R., Bremner, J.D., Felitti, V.J. and Giles, W.H. (2008) Adverse childhood experiences and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease in adults, American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 34(5): 396-403. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2008.02.002

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Aneshensel, C. and Sucoff, C. (1996) The neighborhood context of adolescent mental health, Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 37(4): 293–310. doi: 10.2307/2137258

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Arseneault, L., Bowes, L. and Shakoor, S. (2010) Bullying victimization in youths and mental health problems: ‘Much ado about nothing’?, Psychological Medicine, 40(5): 717–29. doi: 10.1017/S0033291709991383

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Avison, W.R. (2010) Incorporating children’s lives into a life course perspective on stress and mental health, Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 41(4): 361–75. doi: 10.1177/0022146510386797

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Beckie, T M. (2012) A systematic review of allostatic load, health, and health disparities, Biological Research for Nursing, 14(4): 311-46. doi: 10.1177/1099800412455688

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Ben-Shlomo, Y. and Kuh, D. (2002) A life course approach to chronic disease epidemiology: conceptual models, empirical challenges and interdisciplinary perspectives, International Journal of Epidemiology, 31(2): 285–93. doi: 10.1093/ije/31.2.285

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Berglund, P.A., Chang, W., Heeringa, S.G., McGonagle, K., Brown, C. and Johnson, D. (2017) Technical Report: Panel Study of Income Dynamics – Construction and Evaluation of the Longitudinal Sample Weights 2015, Ann Arbor, MI: Institute for Social Research, University of Michigan.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Björkenstam, E., Burström, B., Brännström, L., Vinnerljung, B., Björkenstam, C. and Pebley, A.R. (2015) Cumulative exposure to childhood stressors and subsequent psychological distress: an analysis of US panel data, Social Science & Medicine, 142: 109–17. 

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Bond, L., Butler, H., Thomas, L., Carlin, J., Glover, S., Bowes, G. and Patton, G. (2007) Social and school connectedness in early secondary school as predictors of late substance use, mental health, and academic outcomes, Journal of Adolescent Health, 40(4): 357e9–357.e18. doi: 10.1016/j.jadohealth.2006.10.013

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Bray, B.C., Lanza, S.T. and Tan, X. (2015) Eliminating bias in classify-analyze approaches for latent class analysis, Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 22(1): 1–11. doi: 10.1080/10705511.2014.935265

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Brewin, C.R., Andrews, B. and Gotlib, I.H. (1993) Psychopathology and early experience: a reappraisal of retrospective reports, Psychological Bulletin, 113(1): 82-89. http://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.113.1.82

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Cairney, J., Veldhuizen, S., Wade, T.J., Kurdyak, P. and Streiner, D. (2007) Evaluation of 2 measures of psychological distress as screeners for depression in the general population, Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 52(2): 111–20. doi: 10.1177/070674370705200209

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Case, A., Fertig, A. and Paxson, C. (2005) The lasting impact of childhood health and circumstance, Journal of Health Economics, 24(2): 365–89. doi: 10.1016/j.jhealeco.2004.09.008

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Chapman, D.P., Whitfield, C.L., Felitti, V.J., Dube, S.R., Edwards, V.J. and Anda, R.F. (2004) Adverse childhood experiences and the risk of depressive disorders in adulthood,  Journal of Affective Disorders, 82(2): 217–25. doi: 10.1016/j.jad.2003.12.013

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Collins, L.M. and Lanza, S.T. (2010) Latent Class and Latent Transition Analysis: With Applications in the Social, Behavioral, and Health Sciences, Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Davis-Kean, P.E. (2005) The influence of parent education and family income on child achievement: the indirect role of parental expectations and the home environment, Journal of Family Psychology, 19(2): 294–304. doi: 10.1037/0893-3200.19.2.294

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • DiPrete, T.A. and Eirich, G.M. (2006) Cumulative advantage as a mechanism for inequality: a review of theoretical and empirical developments, Annual Review of Sociology, 32: 271–97.  doi: 10.1146/annurev.soc.32.061604.123127

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Dong, M., Anda, R.F., Dube, S.R., Giles, W.H. and Felitti, V.J. (2003) The relationship of exposure to childhood sexual abuse to other forms of abuse, neglect, and household dysfunction during childhood, Child Abuse and Neglect, 27(6): 625–39. doi: 10.1016/S0145-2134(03)00105-4

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Donley, G.A.R., Lönnroos, E., Tuomainen, T. and Kauhanen, J. (2018) Association of childhood stress with late-life dementia and Alzheimer’s disease: the KIHD study, European Journal of Public Health, 28(6): 1069–73. doi: 10.1093/eurpub/cky134

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Felitti, V.J., Anda, R.F., Nordenberg, D., Williamson, D.F., Spitz, A.M., Edwards, V., Koss, K.P. and Marks, J.S. (1998) Relationship of childhood abuse and household dysfunction to many of the leading causes of death in adults: the Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACE) Study, American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 14(4): 245–58. doi: 10.1016/S0749-3797(98)00017-8

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Ferraro, K.F. and Morton, P.M. (2018) What do we mean by accumulation? Advancing conceptual precision for a core idea in gerontology, The Journals of Gerontology: Series B, 73(2): 269–78. http://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbv094

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Ferraro, K.F. and Shippee, T.P. (2009) Aging and cumulative inequality: how does inequality get under the skin?, The Gerontologist, 49(3): 333–43. doi: 10.1093/geront/gnp034

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Ferraro, K.F., Schafer, M.H. and Wilkinson, L.R. (2016) Childhood disadvantage and health problems in middle and later life: early imprints on physical health?, American Sociological Review, 81(1): 107–33. doi: 10.1177/0003122415619617

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Fitzgerald, J. (2011) Attrition in models of intergenerational links in health and economic status in the PSID, The B.E. Journal of Economic Analysis & Policy, 11(3): art 2, https://doi.org/10.2202/1935-1682.2868.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Friedman, E.M., Montez, J.K., Sheehan, C.M., Guenewald, T. and Seeman, T.E. (2015) Childhood adversities and adult cardiometabolic health: does the quantity, timing, and type of adversity matter?, Journal of Aging and Health, 27(8): 1311–38. doi: 10.1177/0898264315580122

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Georg, W. (2016) Transmission of cultural capital and status attainment: an analysis of development between 15 and 45 years of age, Longitudinal and Life Course Studies, 7(2): 106–123. doi: 10.14301/llcs.v7i2.341

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • George, L.K. (2006) Life course perspectives on social factors and mental illness, in W.R. Avison, J.D. McLeod and B.A. Pescosolido (eds) Mental Health, Social Mirror, New York: Springer, pp 191–218.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Goosby, B.J. (2013) Early life course pathways of adult depression and chronic pain, Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 54(1): 75–91. doi: 10.1177/0022146512475089

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Green, J.G., McLaughlin, K.A., Berglund, P.A., Gruber, M.J., Sampson, N.A., Zaslavsky, A.M. and Kessler, R.C. (2010) Childhood adversities and adult psychiatric disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication I: associations with first onset of DSM-IV disorders, Archives of General Psychiatry, 67(2): 113–23. doi: 10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2009.186

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Haas, S.A. (2007) The Long-term effects of poor childhood health: an assessment and application of retrospective reports, Demography, 44(1): 113–35. doi: 10.1353/dem.2007.0003

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Haas, S.A. (2008) Trajectories of functional health: the ‘long arm’ of childhood health and socioeconomic factors, Social Science & Medicine, 66(4): 849–61.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Hardt, J. and Rutter, M. (2004) Validity of adult retrospective reports of adverse childhood experiences: review of the evidence, Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 45(2): 260–73. doi: 10.1111/j.1469-7610.2004.00218.x

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Hayward, M.D. and Gorman, B.K. (2004) The long arm of childhood: the influence of early-life social conditions on men’s mortality, Demography, 41(1): 87–107. doi: 10.1353/dem.2004.0005

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Heidinger, L.S. and Willson, A.E. (2019) The childhood roots of adult psychological distress: Interdisciplinary perspectives toward a better understanding of exposure to cumulative childhood adversity, Child Abuse & Neglect, 97: art. 104136, doi: 10.1016/j.chiabu.2019.104136

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Horwitz, A.V., Widom, C.S., McLaughlin, J. and White, H.R. (2001) The impact of childhood abuse and neglect on adult mental health: a prospective study, Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 42(2): 184–201. doi: 10.2307/3090177

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Horwitz, A.V., Widom, C.S., McLaughlin, J. and White, H.R. (2001) The impact of childhood abuse and neglect on adult mental health: a prospective study, Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 42(2): 184–201. doi: 10.2307/3090177

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Kessler, R.C., Andrews, G., Colpe, L.J., Hiripi, E., Normand, S.L.T., Walters, E.E. and Zaslavsky, A.M. (2002) Short screening scales to monitor population prevalences and trends in non-specific psychological distress, Psychological Medicine, 32(6): 959–76. doi: 10.1017/S0033291702006074

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Kelley-Moore, J.A. and Lin, J. (2011) Widening the view: capturing ‘unobserved’ heterogeneity in studies of age and the life course, in R. Settersten and J. Angel (eds) Handbook of Sociology of Aging. Handbooks of Sociology and Social Research, New York, NY: Springer. http://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-7374-0_4

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Kessler, R.C., McGonagle, K.A., Zhao, S., Nelson, C.B., Hughes, M., Eshleman, S., Wittchen, H.U. and Kendler, K.S. (1994) Lifetime and 12-month prevalence of DSM-III-R psychiatric disorders in the United States: results from the National Comorbidity Survey, Archives of General Psychiatry, 51(1): 8–19. doi: 10.1001/archpsyc.1994.03950010008002

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Kim, J. and Durden, E. (2007) Socioeconomic status and age trajectories of health, Social Science & Medicine, 65(12): 2489–502.

  • Kirkpatrick Johnson, M., Staff, J., Schulenberg, J.E. and Patrick, M.E. (2015) Living healthier and longer: a life course perspective on education and health, in M.J. Shanahan, J.T., Mortimer and M. Kirkpatrick Johnson (eds) Handbook of the Life Course, Vol II, New York: Springer, pp 369–88.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Lanza, S.T., Dziak, J.J., Huang, L., Wagner, A.T. and Collins, L.M. (2018) LCA Stata Plugin Users’ Guide 1.2.1, University Park, PA: Methodology Center, Pennsylvania State University. 

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • McFarland, M.J. (2017) Poverty and problem behaviors across the early life course: the role of sensitive period exposure, Population Research and Policy Review, 36(5): 739–60. doi: 10.1007/s11113-017-9442-4

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • McGonagle, K. and Freedman, V.A. (2015) The Panel Study of Income Dynamics’ Childhood Retrospective Circumstances Study (PSID-CRCS) User Guide: Final Release 1, Ann Arbor, MI: Institute for Social Research, University of Michigan.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Needham, B.L. (2012) Sexual attraction and trajectories of mental health and substance use during the transition from adolescence to adulthood, Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 41(2): 179–90. doi: 10.1007/s10964-011-9729-4

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Nikulina, V., Widom, C.S. and Czaja, S. (2011) The role of childhood neglect and childhood poverty in predicting mental health, academic achievement and crime in adulthood, American Journal of Community Psychology, 48(3/4): 309–21. doi: 10.1007/s10464-010-9385-y

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Nurius, P.S., Green, S., Logan-Greene, P. and Borja, S. (2015) Life course pathways of adverse childhood experiences toward adult psychological well-being: a stress process analysis, Child Abuse and Neglect, 45: 143–53.  doi: 10.1016/j.chiabu.2015.03.008

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Nylund, K.L., Asparouhov, T. and Muthén, B.O. (2007) Deciding on the number of classes in latent class analysis and growth mixture modeling: a Monte Carlo simulation study, Structural Equation Modeling, 14(4): 535–69. doi: 10.1080/10705510701575396

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Panel Study of Income Dynamics (2016) Public use Dataset, Produced and Distributed by the Survey Research Center, Ann Arbor, MI: Institute for Social Research, University of Michigan. https://simba.isr.umich.edu/default.aspx

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Pearlin, L.I. (2010) The life course and the stress process: some conceptual comparisons, The Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 65(2): 207–15. doi: 10.1093/geronb/gbp106

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Pearlin, L.I., Schieman, S., Fazio, E.M. and Meersman, S.C. (2005) Stress, health, and the life course: some conceptual perspectives, Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 46(2): 205–19. doi: 10.1177/002214650504600206

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Santiago, C., DeCarlo, M., Wadsworth, E. and Stump, J. (2011) Socioeconomic status neighborhood disadvantage, and poverty-related stress: prospective effects on psychological syndromes among diverse low-income families, Journal of Economic Psychology, 32(2): 218–30. doi: 10.1016/j.joep.2009.10.008

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Schraedley, P., Turner, R. and Gotlib, I. (2002) Stability of retrospective reports in depression: Traumatic events, past depressive episodes, and parental psychopathology, Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 43(3): 307-316. doi: 10.2307/3090206

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Schafer, M.H. and Ferraro, K.F. (2013) Childhood misfortune and adult health: enduring and cascadic effects on somatic and psychological symptoms?, Journal of Aging and Health, 25(1): 3–28. doi: 10.1177/0898264312464884

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Schafer, M.H., Ferraro, K.F. and Mustillo, S.A. (2011) Children of misfortune: early adversity and cumulative inequality in perceived life trajectories, American Journal of Sociology, 116(4): 1053–91. doi: 10.1086/655760

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Schilling, E.A., Aseltine, R.H. and Gore, S. (2007) Adverse childhood experiences and mental health in young adults: a longitudinal survey, BMC Public Health, 7: 30,  doi: 10.1186/1471-2458-7-30

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Schilling, E.A., Aseltine, R.H. and Gore, S. (2008) The impact of cumulative childhood adversity on young adult mental health: measures, models and interpretations, Social Science and Medicine, 66(5): 1140–51.  doi: 10.1016/j.socscimed.2007.11.023

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Schwarz, G. (1978) Estimating the dimension of a model, The Annals of Statistics, 6(2): 461–4. doi: 10.1214/aos/1176344136

  • Shochet, I.M., Dadds, M.R., Ham, D. and Montague, R. (2006) School connectedness is an underemphasized parameter in adolescent mental health: results of a community prediction study, Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 35(2): 170–9. doi: 10.1207/s15374424jccp3502_1

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Shuey, K.M. and Willson, A. (2014) Economic hardship in childhood and adult health trajectories: an alternative approach to investigating life-course processes, Advances in Life Course Research, 22: 49–61.  doi: 10.1016/j.alcr.2014.05.001

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Singer, J.D. and Willet, J.B. (2003) Applied Longitudinal Data Analysis: Modeling Change and Event Occurrence, Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Smith, J.P. (2007) The impact of socioeconomic status on health over the life course, The Journal of Human Resources, 42(4): 739–46. doi: 10.3368/jhr.XLII.4.739

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Smith, J.P. (2009) Reconstructing childhood health histories, Demography, 46(2): 387–403. doi: 10.1353/dem.0.0058

  • StataCorp. (2017) Stata Statistical Software Release 15, College Station, TX: StataCorp LLC.

  • Turner, R.J. and Avison, W.R. (2003) Status variations in stress exposure: implications for the interpretation of research on race, socioeconomic status, and gender, Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 44(4): 488–505. doi: 10.2307/1519795

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Turner, R.J. and Lloyd, D.A. (1995) Lifetime traumas and mental health: the significance of cumulative adversity, Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 36(4): 360–76. doi: 10.2307/2137325

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Turner, R.J., Thomas, C.S. and Brown, T.H. (2016) Childhood adversity and adult health: evaluating intervening mechanisms, Social Science and Medicine, 156: 114–24.  doi: 10.1016/j.socscimed.2016.02.026

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Turner, R.J., Wheaton, B. and Lloyd, D.A. (1995) The epidemiology of social stress, American Sociological Review, 60(1): 104–25. doi: 10.2307/2096348

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Umberson, D., Williams, K., Thomas, P.A., Liu, H. and Thomeer, M.B. (2014) Race, gender, and chains of disadvantage: childhood adversity, social relationships, and health, Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 55(1): 20–38. doi: 10.1177/0022146514521426

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Walsemann, K.M., Bell, B.A. and Goosby, B.J. (2011) Effect of school racial composition on trajectories of depressive symptoms from adolescence through early adulthood, Race and Social Problems, 3(131). doi: 10.1007/s12552-011-9053-3

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Walsemann, K.M., Gee, G.C. and Geronimus, A.T. (2009) Ethnic differences in trajectories of depressive symptoms: disadvantage in family background, high school experiences, and adult characteristics, Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 50(1): 82–98. doi: 10.1177/002214650905000106

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Wheaton, B. and Clarke, P. (2003) Space meets time: integrating temporal and contextual influences on mental health in early adulthood, American Sociological Review, 68(5): 680–706. doi: 10.2307/1519758

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Wickrama, K.A.S., Conger, R.D., Lorenz, F.O. and Jung, T. (2008) Family antecedents and consequences of trajectories of depressive symptoms from adolescent to young adulthood: a life course investigation, Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 49(4): 468–83. doi: 10.1177/002214650804900407

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Wickrama, K.A.S., Mancini, J.A., Kwag, K. and Kwon, J. (2013) Heterogeneity in multidimensional health trajectories of late old years and socioeconomic stratification: a latent trajectory class analysis, The Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 68(2): 290–7. doi: 10.1093/geronb/gbs111

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Wickrama, K.A.S., Noh, S. and Elder, G.H. (2009) An investigation of family SES-based inequalities in depressive symptoms from early adolescence to emerging adulthood, Advances in Life Course Research, 14(4): 147–61. doi: 10.1016/j.alcr.2010.04.001

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Williams, A.L. and Merten, M.J. (2014) Linking community, parenting, and depressive symptoms trajectories: testing resilience models of adolescent agency based on race/ethnicity and gender, Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 43(9): 1563–75. doi: 10.1007/s10964-014-0141-8

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Yancura, L.A. and Aldwin, C.M. (2009) Stability and change in retrospective reports of childhood experiences over a 5-year period: findings from the Davis Longitudinal Study, Psychology and Aging, 24(3): 715–21. doi: 10.1037/a0016203

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
Loanna S. Heidinger University of Western Ontario, Canada

Search for other papers by Loanna S. Heidinger in
Current site
Google Scholar Close
 PhD
and
Andrea E. Willson University of Western Ontario, Canada

Search for other papers by Andrea E. Willson in
Current site
Google Scholar Close
 PhD

lheidin@uwo.ca
willson@uwo.ca

Content Metrics

May 2022 onwards Past Year Past 30 Days
Abstract Views 3737 1020 25
Full Text Views 240 110 33
PDF Downloads 150 38 3

Altmetrics

Dimensions

Cover Longitudinal and Life Course Studies
Longitudinal and Life Course Studies
An international journal