A dynamic perspective on the evolution of perceived stress levels in Switzerland: drivers before and during the COVID-19 pandemic
As a major socio-historical event affecting different aspects of life, the COVID-19 pandemic presents a unique opportunity to study how different population groups adapt. We investigate the impact of this crisis on the evolution of perceived stress in the short and medium term in Switzerland, using data of the Swiss Household Panel from 2016 to early 2021, which include annual measures of perceived stress and a study between waves, conducted in May and June 2020 at the end of the first semi-lockdown. Using the longitudinal structure of the data with pre-crisis measurements, we estimate pooled OLS, fixed effects and first difference models, which include socio-demographic variables, life events, socio-economic status, work-related variables, stress-reducing resources and restrictions in place.
Results for the overall population show a continuous increase in stress levels between 2016 and 2019 and a stress reduction right after the first semi-lockdown followed by a return to pre-pandemic levels. Privileged groups with higher levels of stress before the pandemic were most likely to reduce perceived stress. Characteristics related to more favourable trajectories include stable or improved financial situations and high levels of education (short-term effects), and high-pressure jobs and working hours (short- and medium-term effects). Our analyses reveal the importance of resources, such as social relations and work–life balance, to individuals’ management of the effects of the pandemic.
Our results show that the effects of the pandemic on perceived stress are context-specific. They underline the importance of longitudinal analyses to understand the complexity of vulnerability and adaptation processes.
-
Achterberg, M., Dobbelaar, S., Boer, O.D. and Crone, E.A. (2021) Perceived stress as mediator for longitudinal effects of the COVID-19 lockdown on wellbeing of parents and children, Scientific Reports, 11: art 2971, doi: 10.1038/s41598-021-81720-8.
-
Ahrens, K.F., Neumann, R.J., Kollmann, B., Brokelmann, J., von Werthern, N.M., Malyshau, A., Weichert, D., Lutz, B., Fiebach, C.J., Wessa, M. et al. (2021) Impact of COVID-19 lockdown on mental health in Germany: longitudinal observation of different mental health trajectories and protective factors, Translational Psychiatry, 11: art 392, doi: 10.1038/s41398-021-01508-2.
-
Allen, T.D. and Martin, A. (2017) The work–family interface: a retrospective look at 20 years of research in JOHP, Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 22(3): 259–72. doi: 10.1037/ocp0000065
-
Almeida, D.M., Charles, S.T., Mogle, J., Drewelies, J., Aldwin, C.M., Spiro, A. III and Gerstorf, D. (2020) Charting adult development through (historically changing) daily stress processes, American Psychologist, 75(4): 511–24. doi: 10.1037/amp0000597
-
Bonanno, G.A., Galea, S., Bucciarelli, A. and Vlahov, D. (2007) What predicts psychological resilience after disaster? The role of demographics, resources, and life stress, Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 75(5): 671–82. doi: 10.1037/0022-006X.75.5.671
-
Bonanno, G.A., Westphal, M. and Mancini, A.D. (2011) Resilience to loss and potential trauma, Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 7: 511–35. doi: 10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-032210-104526
-
Breslau, J., Finucane, M.L., Locker, A.R., Baird, M.D., Roth, E.A. and Collins, R.L. (2021) A longitudinal study of psychological distress in the United States before and during the COVID-19 pandemic, Preventive Medicine, 143: art 106362, doi: 10.1016/j.ypmed.2020.106362.
-
Brewin, C.R., Andrews, B. and Valentine, J.D. (2000) Meta-analysis of risk factors for posttraumatic stress disorder in Trauma-exposed adults, Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 68(5): 748–66. doi: 10.1037/0022-006X.68.5.748
-
Bruining, H., Bartels, M., Polderman, T.J.C. and Popma, A. (2021) COVID-19 and child and adolescent psychiatry: an unexpected blessing for part of our population?, European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 30(7): 1139–40.
-
Cohen, S., Kamarck, T. and Mermelstein, R. (1983) A global measure of perceived stress, Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 24(4): 385–96. doi: 10.2307/2136404
-
COVID-19 Social Monitor (2021) Good quality of life, https://covid19.ctu.unibe.ch/, (Accessed: 13 Aug 2021).
-
Daly, M., Sutin, A. and Robinson, E. (2020) Longitudinal changes in mental health and the COVID-19 pandemic: evidence from the UK Household Longitudinal Study, preprint: in press in Psychological Medicine, PsyArXiv, https://psyarxiv.com/qd5z7/.
-
Dannefer, D. (2003) Cumulative advantage/disadvantage and the life course: cross-fertilizing age and social science theory, Journals of Gerontology Series B, 58(6): S327–S337. doi: 10.1093/geronb/58.6.S327
-
de Quervain, D., Aerni, A., Amini, E., Bentz, D., Coynel, D., Gerhards, C., Fehlmann, B., Freytag, V., Papassotiropoulos, A., Schicktanz, N. et al. (2020) The Swiss Corona Stress Study, preprint, Open Science Framework, https://osf.io/jqw6a/download.
-
Debnar, C., Carrard, V., Morselli, D., Michel, G., Bachmann, N. and Peter, C. (2020) Psychological distress trajectories in chronic physical health conditions, Health Psychology, 39(2): 116–26. doi: 10.1037/hea0000820
-
Diener, E., Lucas, R.E. and Scollon, C.N. (2006) Beyond the hedonic treadmill: revising the adaptation theory of Well-being, American Psychologist, 61(4): 305–14.
-
Eurostat (2020) Real GDP growth rate - volume, https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/view/tec00115/default/table?lang=en.
-
FOPH (Federal Office of Public Health) (2021) COVID- 19 Switzerland coronavirus dashboard, https://www.covid19.admin.ch/en/overview, (Accessed: 8 Jul 2021).
-
Hale, T., Angrist, N., Goldszmidt, R., Kira, B., Petherick, A., Phillips, T., Webster, S., Cameron-Blake, E., Hallas, L., Majumdar, S. et al. (2021) A global panel database of pandemic policies (Oxford COVID-19 Government Response Tracker), Nature Human Behaviour, 5(4): 529–38. doi: 10.1038/s41562-021-01079-8
-
Hämmig, O. and Bauer, G.F. (2013) The social gradient in work and health: a cross-sectional study exploring the relationship between working conditions and health inequalities, BMC Public Health, 13(1): art 1170, doi: 10.1186/1471-2458-13-1170.
-
Johnston, D.W. and Lee, W.S. (2013) Extra status and extra stress: are promotions good for us?, ILR Review, 66(1): 32–54. doi: 10.1177/001979391306600102
-
Klausch, T., Hox, J.J. and Schouten, B. (2013) Measurement effects of survey mode on the equivalence of attitudinal rating scale questions, Sociological Methods & Research, 42(3): 227–63. doi: 10.1177/0049124113500480
-
Kuhn, U., Klaas, H.S., Antal, E., Dasoki, N., Lebert, F., Lipps, O., Monsch, G.A., Refle, J.E., Ryser, V.A., Tillmann, R. et al. (2020) Who is most affected by the Corona crisis? An analysis of changes in stress and well-being in Switzerland, European Societies, 23(S1): S942–S956.
-
Lazarus, R.S. and Folkman, S. (1984) Stress, Appraisal, and Coping, New York: Springer.
-
Li, Y., Zhao, J., Ma, Z., McReynolds, L.S., Lin, D., Chen, Z., Wang, T., Wang, D., Zhang, Y., Zhang, J. et al. (2021) Mental health among college students during the COVID-19 pandemic in China: a 2-wave longitudinal survey, Journal of Affective Disorders, 281: 597–604. doi: 10.1016/j.jad.2020.11.109
-
Luhmann, M., Hofmann, W., Eid, M. and Lucas, R.E. (2012) Subjective Well-being and adaptation to life events: a Meta-analysis, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 102(3): 592–615. doi: 10.1037/a0025948
-
Manchia, M. et al. (2022) The impact of the prolonged COVID-19 pandemic on stress resilience and mental health: a critical review across waves, European Neuropsychopharmacology, 55: 22–83, doi: 10.1016/j.euroneuro.2021.10.864.
-
Matud, M.P. (2004) Gender differences in stress and coping styles, Personality and Individual Differences, 37(7): 1401–15. doi: 10.1016/j.paid.2004.01.010
-
McBride, O., Butter, S., Murphy, J., Shevlin, M., Hartman, T.K., Hyland, P., McKay, R., Bennett, K.M., Gibson-Miller, J., Levita, L. et al. (2021) Context, design and conduct of the longitudinal COVID-19 psychological research consortium Study-wave 3, International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research, 30(3): art e1880, doi: 10.1002/mpr.1880.
-
Naqvi, A. (2021) COVID-19 European regional tracker, Scientific Data, 8: art 181, doi: 10.1038/s41597-021-00950-7.
-
Nielsen, M.G., Ørnbøl, E., Vestergaard, M., Bech, P., Larsen, F.B., Lasgaard, M. and Christensen, K.S. (2016) The construct validity of the Perceived Stress Scale, Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 84: 22–30. doi: 10.1016/j.jpsychores.2016.03.009
-
Nochaiwong, S., Ruengorn, C., Thavorn, K., Hutton, B., Awiphan, R., Phosuya, C., Ruanta, Y., Wongpakaran, N. and Wongpakaran, T. (2021) Global prevalence of mental health issues among the general population during the coronavirus disease-2019 pandemic: a systematic review and meta-analysis, Scientific Reports, 11: art 10173, doi: 10.1038/s41598-021-89700-8.
-
Pearlin, L.I. and Skaff, M.M. (1996) Stress and the life course: a paradigmatic alliance, The Gerontologist, 36(2): 239–47. doi: 10.1093/geront/36.2.239
-
Pearlin, L.I., Menaghan, E.G., Lieberman, M.A. and Mullan, J.T. (1981) The stress process, Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 22(4): 337–56. doi: 10.2307/2136676
-
Pieh, C., Budimir, S., Delgadillo, J., Barkham, M., Fontaine, J.R.J. and Probst, T. (2021) Mental health during COVID-19 lockdown in the United Kingdom, Psychosomatic Medicine, 83(4): 328–37. doi: 10.1097/PSY.0000000000000871
-
Pleninger, R., Streicher, S. and Sturm, J.E. (2022) Do COVID-19 Containment Measures Work? Evidence from Switzerland, Swiss Journal of Economics and Statistics, 158 (1). doi: 10.1186/s41937-022-00083-7.
-
Promotion Santé Suisse (2020) Job Stress Index 2020: Monitorage des Indicateurs du Stress Chez Les Personnes Actives en Suisse, Bern: Promotion Santé Suisse, https://promotionsante.ch/node/75. (Accessed: 13 Jul 2021).
-
Refle, J.E., Voorpostel, M., Lebert, F., Kuhn, U., Klaas, H.S., Ryser, V.A., Dasoki, N., Monsch, G.A., Antal, E. and Tillmann, R. (2020) First Results of the Swiss Household Panel: Covid-19 Study, FORS Working Paper 2020-1, doi: 10.24440/FWP-2020-00001.
-
Rehman, U., Shahnawaz, M.G., Khan, N.H., Kharshiing, K.D., Khursheed, M., Gupta, K., ... and Uniyal, R. (2021) Depression, anxiety and stress among Indians in times of Covid-19 lockdown, Community Mental Health Journal, 57(1): 42–48, doi: 10.1007/s10597-020-00664-x.
-
Robinson, E. and Daly, M. (2021) Explaining the rise and fall of psychological distress during the COVID-19 crisis in the United States: longitudinal evidence from the Understanding America Study, British Journal of Health Psychology, 26(2): 570–87. doi: 10.1111/bjhp.12493
-
Ruppanner, L., Perales, F. and Baxter, J. (2019) Harried and unhealthy? Parenthood, time pressure, and mental health, Journal of Marriage and Family, 81(2): 308–26. doi: 10.1111/jomf.12531
-
Scott, S.B., Ram, N., Smyth, J.M., Almeida, D.M. and Sliwinski, M.J. (2017) Age differences in negative emotional responses to daily stressors depend on time since event, Developmental Psychology, 53(1): 177–90. doi: 10.1037/dev0000257
-
SECO (State Secretariat for Economic Affairs) (2020) Bruttoinlandprodukt im 2.Quartal 2020: Pandemie führt zu historischem Einbruch, press briefing 27 August, https://www.seco.admin.ch/dam/seco/de/dokumente/Wirtschaft/Wirtschaftslage/VIP%20Quartalssch%C3%A4tzungen/20202bipchweiz.pdf.download.pdf/2020_2_bip_schweiz.pdf.
-
Settersten, R.A. Jr, Bernardi, L., Härkönen, J., Antonucci, T.C., Dykstra, P.A., Heckhausen, J., Kuh, D., Mayer, K.U., Moen, P., Mortimer, J.T. et al. (2020) Understanding the effects of Covid-19 through a life course lens, Advances in Life Course Research, 45: art 100360, doi: 10.1016/j.alcr.2020.100360.
-
Shanahan, L., Steinhoff, A., Bechtiger, L., Murray, A., Nivette, A., Hepp, U., Ribeaud, D. and Eisner, M. (2020) Emotional distress in young adults during the COVID-19 pandemic: evidence of risk and resilience from a longitudinal cohort study, Psychological Medicine, 52(5): 824–33. doi: 10.1017/S003329172000241X
-
SHP Group (Swiss Household Panel Group) (2021) Living in Switzerland Waves 1–22 + Covid 19 data [data set], FORS – Swiss Centre of Expertise in the Social Sciences, doi: 10.23662/FORS-DS-932-5.
-
Son, C., Hegde, S., Smith, A., Wang, X. and Sasangohar, F. (2020) Effects of COVID-19 on college students’ mental health in the United States: interview survey study, Journal of Medical Internet Research, 22(9). doi: 10.2196/21279
-
Spini, D., Bernardi, L. and Oris, M. (2017) Toward a life course framework for studying vulnerability, Research in Human Development, 14(1): 5–25. doi: 10.1080/15427609.2016.1268892
-
Spini, D., Hanappi, D., Bernardi, L., Oris, M. and Bickel, J.F. (2013) Vulnerability Across the Life Course: A Theoretical Framework and Research Directions, LIVES Working Paper 27.
-
Steinmann, R.M. (2005) Psychische Gesundheit – Stress: Wissenschaftliche Grundlagen für Eine Nationale Strategie zur Stressprävention und Förderung Psychischer Gesundheit in der Schweiz, Bern: Gesundheitsförderung Schweiz.
-
Swiss Confederation (2021) Federal measures for the economy, https://covid19.easygov.swiss/en/federal-measures/, (Accessed: 8 Jul 2021).
-
Swiss TPH (Tropical and Public Health Institute) (2021) Covid Measures by Canton, Basel: Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, https://github.com/SwissTPH/COVID_measures_by_canton (Accessed: 9 Jun 2021).
-
Thoits, P.A. (2010) Stress and health major findings and policy implications, Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 51(1 suppl): S41–S53. doi: 10.1177/0022146510383499
-
Tillmann, R., Voorpostel, M., Kuhn, U., Lebert, F., Ryser, V.A., Lipps, O., Wernli, B. and Antal, E. (2016) The Swiss Household Panel Study: observing social change since 1999, Longitudinal and Life Course Studies, 7(1): 64–78. doi: 10.14301/llcs.v7i1.360
-
Tillmann, R., Voorpostel, M., Antal, E. Dasoki, N., Klaas, H., Kuhn, U., Lebert, F., Monsch, G.A. and Ryser, V.A. (2021) The Swiss Household Panel (SHP), Jahrbücher für Nationalökonomie und Statistik, 242(3): 403–20.
-
Uchino, B.N., Cacioppo, J.T. and Kiecolt-Glaser, J.K. (1996) The relationship between social support and physiological processes: a review with emphasis on underlying mechanisms and implications for health, Psychological Bulletin, 119(3): 488–531. doi: 10.1037/0033-2909.119.3.488
-
van den Bogaard, L., Henkens, K. and Kalmijn, M. (2016) Retirement as a relief? The role of physical job demands and psychological job stress for effects of retirement on self-rated health, European Sociological Review, 32(2): 295–306. doi: 10.1093/esr/jcv135
-
Voltmer, E., Köslich-Strumann, S., Walther, A., Kasem, M., Obst, K. and Kötter, T. (2021) The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on stress, mental health and coping behavior in German University students: a longitudinal study before and after the onset of the pandemic, BMC Public Health, 21: art 1385, doi: 10.1186/s12889-021-11295-6.
-
Wang, Y., Kala, M.P. and Jafar, T.H. (2020) Factors associated with psychological distress during the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic on the predominantly general population: a systematic review and meta-analysis, PLOS ONE, 15(12), art e0244630, doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0244630.
-
WHO (World Health Organization) (2015) The European Mental Health Action Plan 2013–2020, Copenhagen: WHO Regional Office for Europe, https://www.euro.who.int/__data/assets/pdf_file/0020/280604/WHO-Europe-Mental-Health-Acion-Plan-2013-2020.pdf.
-
WHO (World Health Organization) (2016) Action Plan for the Prevention and Control of Noncommunicable Diseases in the WHO European Region, Copenhagen: WHO Regional Office for Europe, https://www.euro.who.int/__data/assets/pdf_file/0008/346328/NCD-ActionPlan-GB.pdf.
| May 2022 onwards | Past Year | Past 30 Days | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Abstract Views | 1846 | 1846 | 557 |
| Full Text Views | 344 | 344 | 51 |
| PDF Downloads | 155 | 155 | 23 |
We are a leading social science publisher
committed to making a difference.
Bristol University Press and
Policy Press
bristoluniversitypress.co.uk