Cover Policy & Politics
Policy & Politics
Advancing knowledge in public and social policy

Do women leaders of nonprofit public service organisations help to reduce the gender pay gap?

Author:
Rhys AndrewsUniversity of Cardiff, UK

Search for other papers by Rhys Andrews in
Current site
Google ScholarClose
Article Category:
Research Article
Copyright:
© Policy Press 2023
Online Publication Date:
01 Mar 2023
Pages:
206–230
Publisher:
Policy Press
Volume/Issue:
Volume 51: Issue 2
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.1332/030557321X16753329868574
Restricted access
Get eTOC alerts
Rights and permissions Cite this article
Buy article/chapter (GBP  £25.00)

It is often asserted that the representation of women in leadership positions within public service organisations is likely to result in improved outcomes for other women within those organisations. However, there has been little systematic research devoted to understanding whether this argument holds for the nonprofit organisations that now provide many public services. To cast light on this important issue, this article presents an analysis of the representation of women in leadership roles and the gender pay gap in Welsh housing associations – registered societies responsible for providing more than half of the social housing within Wales. The findings show that nonprofit service providers led by women in the most senior organisational positions may be more likely to have a lower gender pay gap, confirming arguments about the importance of actively representing female interests. At the same time, it seems that representation in the upper echelons in general is not likely to influence gender pay equality, which raises questions about whether a glass ceiling may be present, as has been observed in state-led public service provision. These findings suggest a need for more in-depth, multi-method research which systematically evaluates the way in which female leaders actively represent women’s interests in the myriad organisations that provide public services. This article has important implications given a renewed period of austerity in the public sector, which, as in the past, may threaten further progress on equality for those women who provide and receive public services.

  • Abendroth, A.K., Melzer, S., Kalev, A. and Tomaskovic-Devey, D. (2017) Women at work: women’s access to power and the gender earnings gap, Industrial and Labor Relations Review (ILR) Review, 70(1): 190–222.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Abraham, M. (2017) Pay formalization revisited: considering the effects of manager gender and discretion on closing the gender wage gap, Academy of Management Journal, 60(1): 29–54. doi: 10.5465/amj.2013.1060

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Ahamed, M.M., Wen, J. and Gupta, N. (2019) Does board composition affect the gender pay gap?, Economics Letters, 184: 108624. doi: 10.1016/j.econlet.2019.108624

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Almog-Bar, M. and Schmid, H. (2014) Advocacy activities of nonprofit human service organizations: a critical review, Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly, 43(1): 11–35. doi: 10.1177/0899764013483212

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Andrews, R. and Ashworth, R. (2013) Determinants of representation: an empirical assessment of the UK civil service, Policy & Politics, 42(3): 429–48.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Baines, D. and Cunningham, I. (2011) ‘White knuckle care work’: violence, gender and new public management in the voluntary sector, Work, Employment and Society, 25(4): 760–76. doi: 10.1177/0950017011419710

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Baines, D. and Cunningham, I. (2020) ‘How could management let this happen?’ Gender, unpaid work and industrial relations in the nonprofit social services sector, Economic and Industrial Democracy, 41(2): 436–56. doi: 10.1177/0143831X17715768

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Barry, A.M. and Cook, L. (2002) Managing health boards: the difference that women could make, Public Money and Management, 22(1): 31–4. doi: 10.1111/1467-9302.00293

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Bawden, A. and Thomas, T. (2021) Reminded of the gap: why men still get paid more in UK public sector, The Guardian, (Accessed: 29 Dec 2021).

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Billis, D. (ed) (2010) Hybrid Organizations and the Third Sector: Challenges for Practice, Theory and Policy, Houndmills: Palgrave.

  • Bishu, S.G. and Alkadry, M.G. (2017) A systematic review of the gender pay gap and factors that predict it, Administration & Society, 49(1): 65–104. doi: 10.1177/0095399716636928

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Bishu, S.G. and Kennedy, A.R. (2020) Trends and gaps: a meta-review of representative bureaucracy, Review of Public Personnel Administration, 40(4): 559–88. doi: 10.1177/0734371X19830154

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Blessing, A. (2015) Public, private, or in-between? The legitimacy of social enterprises in the housing market, VOLUNTAS: International Journal of Voluntary and Nonprofit Organizations, 26(1): 198–221. doi: 10.1007/s11266-013-9422-1

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Blundell, J. (2021) Wage Responses to Gender Pay Gap Reporting Requirements, Centre for Economic Performance Discussion Paper No.1750, London: London School of Economics and Politcial Science (LSE).

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Bowerman, B.L. and O’Connell, R.T. (1990) Linear Statistical Models: An Applied Approach, 2nd edn, Belmont, CA: Duxbury.

  • Briskin, L. (2014) Austerity, union policy and gender equality bargaining, Transfer: European Review of Labour and Research, 20(1): 115–33. doi: 10.1177/1024258913515161

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Brochard, D., Charpenel, M. and Pochic, S. (2020) Pay equity through collective bargaining: when voluntary state feminism meets selective business practice, French Politics, 18: 93–110. doi: 10.1057/s41253-020-00110-0

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Bromley, P. and Meyer, J.W. (2017) ‘They are all organizations’: the cultural roots of blurring between the nonprofit, business, and government sectors, Administration & Society, 49(7): 939–66. doi: 10.1177/0095399714548268

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Bryson, J.M., Crosby, B.C. and Bloomberg, L. (2014) Public value governance: moving beyond traditional public administration and the new public management, Public Administration Review, 74(4): 445–56. doi: 10.1111/puar.12238

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Burman, M. and Johnstone, J. (2015) High hopes? The gender equality duty and its impact on responses to gender-based violence, Policy & Politics, 43(1): 45–60.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Butcher, J. and Gilchrist, D. (eds) (2016) The Three Sector Solution: Delivering Public Policy in Collaboration with Not-for-Profits and Business, Canberra: ANU Press.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Cabinet Office (2017) A Brilliant Civil Service: becoming the UK’s most inclusive employer, Crown Copyright, London, Gov.uk, https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/a-brilliant-civil-service-becoming-the-uks-most-inclusive-employer.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Carmel, E. and Harlock, J. (2008) Instituting the ‘third sector’ as a governable terrain: partnership, procurement and performance in the UK, Policy & Politics, 36(2): 155–71.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Chanfreau, J. (Forthcoming) The persistence in gendering: work–family policy in Britain since Beveridge, Journal of Social Policy. doi: 10.1017/S0047279422000125

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Chappell, L. (2002) The ‘femocrat’ strategy: expanding the repertoire of feminist activists, Parliamentary Affairs, 55(1): 85–98. doi: 10.1093/parlij/55.1.85

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Charlesworth, S. and Marshall, H. (2011) Sacrificing workers? The curious case of salary sacrificing in non‐profit community services in Australia, International Journal of Public Sector Management, 24(7): 673–83. doi: 10.1108/09513551111172495

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Ciccia, R. and Lombardo, E. (2019) Care policies in practice: how discourse matters for policy implementation, Policy and Society, 38(4): 537–53. doi: 10.1080/14494035.2019.1702278

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Clarke, J. and Newman, J. (1997) The Managerial State: Power, Politics and Ideology in The Remaking of Social Welfare, London: Sage.

  • Cohen, P.N. and Huffman, M.L. (2007) Working for the woman? Female managers and the gender wage gap, American Sociological Review, 72(5): 681–704. doi: 10.1177/000312240707200502

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Community Housing Cymru (2018) Pay Transparency Report, Turning Point HR Solutions, Cardiff: Community Housing Cymru.

  • Community Housing Cymru (2019) Pay Transparency Report, Turning Point HR Solutions, Cardiff: Community Housing Cymru.

  • Community Housing Cymru (2020) Pay Transparency Report, Turning Point HR Solutions, Cardiff: Community Housing Cymru.

  • Community Housing Cymru (2021) Pay Transparency Report, Turning Point HR Solutions, Cardiff: Community Housing Cymru.

  • Cope, H.F. (1990) Housing Associations: Policy and Practice, Houndmills: Macmillan Education.

  • Crain, M. (1994) Gender and union organizing, Industrial and Labor Relations Review (ILR) Review, 47(2): 227–48.

  • Cullen, Z. and Perez-Truglia, R. (2022) How much does your boss make? The effects of salary comparisons, Journal of Political Economy, 130(3): 766–822. doi: 10.1086/717891

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Cunningham, I. (2012) Employment Relations in the Voluntary Sector: Struggling to Care, London: Routledge.

  • Czischke, D., Gruis, V. and Mullins, D. (2012) Conceptualising social enterprise in housing organizations, Housing Studies, 27(4): 418–37. doi: 10.1080/02673037.2012.677017

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Dahlerup, D. (2021) Women in Decision-Making in Public Life: Usage, and Effects of Temporary Special Measures, Including Gender Quotas, Expert Report For UN Women, Publication EGM/CSW/2021/EP3, New York: UN Women.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Deakin, S., Fraser Butlin, S., McLaughlin, C. and Polanska, A. (2015) Are litigation and collective bargaining complements or substitutes for achieving gender equality? A study of the British Equal Pay Act, Cambridge Journal of Economics, 39(2): 381–403. doi: 10.1093/cje/bev006

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Ding, F. and Riccucci, N.M. (Forthcoming) How does diversity affect public organizational performance? A meta‐analysis, Public Administration. doi: 10.1111/padm.12885

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Dolan, J. (2000) The senior executive service: gender, attitudes, and representative bureaucracy, Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory, 10(3): 513–30. doi: 10.1093/oxfordjournals.jpart.a024279

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Dolan, J. (2002) Representative bureaucracy in the federal executive: gender and spending priorities, Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory, 12(3): 353–75. doi: 10.1093/oxfordjournals.jpart.a003538

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Duchini, E., Simion, S. and Turrell, A. (2020) Pay transparency and cracks in the glass ceiling, arXiv preprint arXiv:2006.16099. doi: 10.48550/arXiv.2006.16099

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Durbin, S., Page, M. and Walby, S. (2017) Gender equality and ‘austerity’: vulnerabilities, resistance and change, Gender, Work & Organization, 24(1): 1–6. doi: 10.1111/gwao.12173

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Elliott, R., Lucifora, C. and Meurs, D. (eds) (1999) Public Sector Pay Determination in the European Union, Berlin: Springer.

  • Eisenstein, H. (1996) Inside Agitators: Australian Femocrats and the State, Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press.

  • Engeli, I. and Mazur, A. (2018) Taking implementation seriously in assessing success: the politics of gender equality policy, European Journal of Politics and Gender, 1(1–2): 111–29. doi: 10.1332/251510818X15282097548558

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Engeli, I. and Mazur, A.G. (eds) (2022) Gender Equality and Policy Implementation in the Corporate World: Making Democracy Work in Business, Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Etienne, J.M. and Narcy, M. (2010) Gender wage differentials in the French nonprofit and for-profit sectors: evidence from quantile regression, Annals of Economics and Statistics/Annales d’Économie et de Statistique, 99/100: 67–90.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • EIGE (European Institute for Gender Equality) (2016) Gender Equality Training: Gender Mainstreaming Toolkit, Vilnius: EIGE.

  • Eurofound (2018) Pay Transparency in Europe: First Experiences with Gender Pay Reports and Audits in Four Member States, Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Faulk, L., Edwards, L.H., Lewis, G.B. and McGinnis, J. (2013) An analysis of gender pay disparity in the nonprofit sector: an outcome of labor motivation or gendered jobs?, Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly, 42(6): 1268–87. doi: 10.1177/0899764012455951

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Financial Conduct Authority (2023) Mutuals Public Register, https://mutuals.fca.org.uk/.

  • Finley, A.R., Hall, C.M. and Marino, A.R. (2022) Negotiation and executive gender pay gaps in nonprofit organizations, Review of Accounting Studies, 27(4): 1357–88. doi: 10.1007/s11142-021-09628-2

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Flood, M. and Pease, B. (2005) Undoing men’s privilege and advancing gender equality in public sector institutions, Policy and Society, 24(4): 119–38. doi: 10.1016/S1449-4035(05)70123-5

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Funk, K.D. and Molina Jr, A.L. (2022) Closing the gap: how mayors’ individual attributes affect gender wage disparities in local bureaucracies, Review of Public Personnel Administration, 42(3): 553–73. doi: 10.1177/0734371X211002610

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • GEO (Government Equalities Office) (2011) Equality Act 2010: Public Sector Equality Duty what do I Need to know? A Quick Start Guide for Public Sector Organisations, London: GEO.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • GEO (Government Equalities Office) (2016) Trailblazing Transparency: Mending the Gap, London: GEO.

  • GEO (Government Equalities Office) (2017) Reducing the Gender Pay Gap and Improving Gender Equality in Organisations: Evidence-based Actions for Employers, London: GEO.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • GEO (Government Equalities Office) (2021) Who needs to report their gender pay gap, https://www.gov.uk/guidance/who-needs-to-report-their-gender-pay-gap.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Hakim, C. (1996) Key Issues in Women’s Work, London: Ashlone.

  • Halford, S. (1988) Women’s initiatives in local government: where do they come from and where are they going?, Policy & Politics, 16(4): 251–59.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Hepple, B. (2010) The new single equality act in Britain, The Equal Rights Review, 5(1): 11–24.

  • Hoard, S. (2015) Does Gender Expertise Matter? Towards a Theory of Policy Success, London: Palgrave Macmillan.

  • Hooker, J. and Guy, M. (2022) Gender and representative bureaucracy, in P.M. Shields and N.M. Elias (eds) Handbook on Gender and Public Administration, Cheltenham: Edward Elgar Publishing, pp 212–19.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Hultin, M. and Szulkin, R. (2003) Mechanisms of inequality: unequal access to organizational power and the gender wage gap, European Sociological Review, 19(2): 143–59. doi: 10.1093/esr/19.2.143

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Hutson, S. and Stirling, T. (2010) Gendered housing policy: women, housing and homelessness, in N. Charles and C.A. Davies (eds) Gender and Social Justice in Wales, Cardiff: University of Wales Press, pp 184–207.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • ILO (International Labour Organization) (2019) Women in Business and Management: The Business Case for Change, Geneva: ILO.

  • Johansen, M. and LeRoux, K. (2013) Managerial networking in nonprofit organizations: the impact of networking on organizational and advocacy effectiveness, Public Administration Review, 73(2): 355–63. doi: 10.1111/puar.12017

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Johansen, M. and Zhu, L. (2017) Who values diversity? Comparing the effect of manager gender across the public, private, and nonprofit sectors, The American Review of Public Administration, 47(7): 797–809. doi: 10.1177/0275074016634201

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Johnston, K. (2017) A gender analysis of women in public–private–voluntary sector ‘partnerships’, Public Administration, 95(1): 140–59. doi: 10.1111/padm.12288

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Johnston, K. (2019) Women in public policy and public administration?, Public Money & Management, 39(3): 155–65. doi: 10.1080/09540962.2018.1534421

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Johnstone, R. (2015) Housing associations classified as public bodies, Public Finance, 30 October.

  • Jones, M.K. and Kaya, E. (2019) Understanding the gender pay gap within the UK public sector, Research Report for Office of Manpower Economics (OME), https://orca.cardiff.ac.uk/id/eprint/126665/1/Understanding_the_Gender_Pay_Gap_within_the_UK_Public_Sector.pdf.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Jones, M.K. and Kaya, E. (2022) Organisational Gender Pay Gaps in The UK: What Happened Post-Transparency?, IZA Institute for Labour Economics Discussion Paper No. 15342, Bonn: IZA Institute for Labour Economics.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Kamerāde, D. and McKay, S. (2015) Is there a subjective well-being premium in voluntary sector employment?, VOLUNTAS: International Journal of Voluntary and Nonprofit Organizations, 26(6): 2733–54.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Kanter, R.M. (1977) Men and Women of the Corporation, New York: Basic Books.

  • Kelly, R.M. and Newman, M. (2001) The gendered bureaucracy: agency mission, equality of opportunity, and representative bureaucracies, Women & Politics, 22(3): 1–33.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Kirsch, A. (2018) The gender composition of corporate boards: a review and research agenda, The Leadership Quarterly, 29(2): 346–64. doi: 10.1016/j.leaqua.2017.06.001

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Krizsan, A. and Lombardo, E. (2013) The quality of gender equality policies: a discursive approach, European Journal of Women’s Studies, 20(1): 77–92.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Kurtulus, F.A. and Tomaskovic-Devey, D. (2012) Do female top managers help women to advance? A panel study using EEO-1 records, The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 639(1): 173–97. doi: 10.1177/0002716211418445

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Lang, S., Meier, P. and Sauer, B. (eds) (2022) Party Politics and the Implementation of Gender Quotas: Resisting Institutions, Cham: Springer International Publishing.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Le Mens, G., Hannan, M.T. and Pólos, L. (2015) Age-related structural inertia: a distance-based approach, Organization Science, 26(3): 756–73. doi: 10.1287/orsc.2015.0966

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Lee, Y.J. (2019) Scarce as hen’s teeth: women CEOs in large nonprofit organizations, Nonprofit Management and Leadership, 29(4): 601–10. doi: 10.1002/nml.21354

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Lee, Y.J. and Lee, C.K. (2021) The roots of the gender pay gap for nonprofit CEOs, Nonprofit Management and Leadership, 32(1): 155–67. doi: 10.1002/nml.21455

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • LeRoux, K.M. and Sneed, B.G. (2006) The convergence of public and nonprofit values: a research agenda for the intersectoral study of representative bureaucracy, International Journal of Organization Theory & Behavior, 9(4): 537–56. doi: 10.1108/IJOTB-09-04-2006-B004

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Lindsay, C., Pearson, S., Batty, E., Cullen, A.M. and Eadson, W. (2018) Street-level practice and the co-production of third sector-led employability services, Policy & Politics, 46(4): 571–87.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Lombardo, E. and Meier, P. (2022) Challenging boundaries to expand frontiers in gender and policy studies, Policy & Politics, 50(1): 99–115.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Lyon, F. and Humbert, A.L. (2012) Gender balance in the governance of social enterprise, Local Economy, 27(8): 831–45. doi: 10.1177/0269094212455158

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Magda, I. and Cukrowska-Torzewska, E. (2019) Do women managers lower gender pay gaps? Evidence from public and private firms, Feminist Economics, 25(4): 185–210. doi: 10.1080/13545701.2019.1634828

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Malpass, P. (2000) The discontinuous history of housing associations in England, Housing Studies, 15(2): 195–212. doi: 10.1080/02673030082351

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Malpass, P. and Mullins, D. (2002) Local authority housing stock transfer in the UK: from local initiative to national policy, Housing Studies, 17(4): 673–86. doi: 10.1080/02673030220144402

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Maume, D.J. (2011) Meet the new boss… same as the old boss? Female supervisors and subordinate career prospects, Social Science Research, 40(1): 287–98. doi: 10.1016/j.ssresearch.2010.05.001

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Mazur, A.G. (2017) Does feminist policy matter in post industrial democracies?, Journal of Women, Politics and Policy, 38(1): 64–83. doi: 10.1080/1554477X.2016.1198210

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Mazur, A.G. and Engeli, I. (2020) The search for the elusive recipe for gender equality: when policy implementation matters, French Politics, 18: 3–27. doi: 10.1057/s41253-020-00117-7

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • McBride, D. and Mazur, A.G. (2010) The Politics of State Feminism: Innovation in Comparative Research, Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Meier, K.J. (2019) Theoretical frontiers in representative bureaucracy: new directions for research, Perspectives on Public Management and Governance, 2(1): 39–56. doi: 10.1093/ppmgov/gvy004

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Meier, K.J. and Funk, K.D. (2017) Women and public administration in a comparative perspective: the case of representation in Brazilian local governments, Administration & Society, 49(1): 121–42. doi: 10.1177/0095399715626201

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Meng, X. (2004) Gender earnings gap: the role of firm specific effects, Labour Economics, 11(5): 555–73. doi: 10.1016/j.labeco.2003.09.006

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Miller, K.J. and McTavish, D. (2014) Representative bureaucracy: a typology of normative institutional strategies for the representation of women, Policy & Politics, 42(4): 531–46.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Milner, S. (2019) Gender pay gap reporting regulations: advancing gender equality policy in tough economic times, British Politics, 14(2): 121–40. doi: 10.1057/s41293-018-00101-4

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Milner, S., Pochic, S., Scheele, A. and Williamson, S. (2019) Challenging gender pay gaps: organizational and regulatory strategies, Gender, Work & Organization, 26(5): 593–98. doi: 10.1111/gwao.12274

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Mullins, D. (2010) Housing associations, Third Sector Research Centre (TSRC) Working Paper 16, Birmingham: TSRC, http://epapers.bham.ac.uk/800/1/WP16_Housing_associations_-_Mullins_Aug_10.pdf.

  • Mullins, D. and Pawson, H. (2010) The evolution of stock transfer, in P. Malpass and R. Rowlands (eds) Housing, Markets and Policy, London: Routledge, pp 76–101.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Mullins, D., Milligan, V. and Nieboer, N. (2018) State directed hybridity? The relationship between non-profit housing organizations and the state in three national contexts, Housing Studies, 33(4): 565–88. doi: 10.1080/02673037.2017.1373747

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Naff, K.C. (1994) Through the glass ceiling: prospects for the advancement of women in the federal civil service, Public Administration Review, 54(6): 507–14. doi: 10.2307/976669

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • NCVO (National Council for Voluntary Organizations) (2022) UK Civil Society Almanac, 2022. Data. Trends. Insights, London: NCVO.

  • Newman, J. (2012) Working the Spaces of Power: Activism, Neoliberalism and Gendered Labour, London: Bloomsbury Academic.

  • Newman, J. and Ashworth, R.E. (2008) Changing equalities: politics, policies and practice, in T. Bovaird and E. Loeffler (eds) Public Management and Governance, London: Routledge.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development) (2012) Closing the Gender Gap: Act Now, Paris: OECD Publishing.

  • OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development) (2022) Same Skills, Different Pay: Tackling Gender Inequalities at Firm Level, Paris: OECD, www.oecd.org/gender/same-skills-different-pay-2022.pdf.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • ONS (Office for National Statistics) (2021) Gender Pay Gap in the UK: 2021 – Statistical Bulletin, Newport: ONS.

  • Papenfuß, U., Van Genugten, M., De Kruijf, J. and Van Thiel, S. (2018) Implementation of EU initiatives on gender diversity and executive directors’ pay in municipally-owned enterprises in Germany and The Netherlands, Public Money & Management, 38(2): 87–96.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Parken, A. and Ashworth, R. (2019) From evidence to action: applying gender mainstreaming to pay gaps in the Welsh public sector, Gender, Work & Organization, 26(5): 599–618. doi: 10.1111/gwao.12239

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Parkes, B. (2015) Housing Associations and Almos – A Practical Guide to The Public Sector Equality Duty, Bradford: Housing Diversity Network.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Parry, E., Kelliher, C., Mills, T. and Tyson, S. (2005) Comparing HRM in the voluntary and public sectors, Personnel Review, 34(5): 588–602. doi: 10.1108/00483480510612530

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Pascall, G. and Lewis, J. (2004) Emerging gender regimes and policies for gender equality in a wider Europe, Journal of Social Policy, 33(3): 373–94. doi: 10.1017/S004727940400772X

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Peetz, D. and Murray, G. (eds.) (2017) Women, Labor Segmentation and Regulation: Varieties of Gender Gaps, Berlin: Springer.

  • Pitkin, H.F. (1967) The Concept of Representation, Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.

  • Pochic, S. and Chappe, V.A. (2019) Battles through and about statistics in French pay equity bargaining: the politics of quantification at workplace level, Gender, Work and Organization, 26(5): 650–67. doi: 10.1111/gwao.12298

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Rabovsky, T. and Lee, H. (2018) Exploring the antecedents of the gender pay gap in US higher education, Public Administration Review, 78(3): 375–85. doi: 10.1111/puar.12827

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Rao, N. (2005) The representation of women in local politics, Policy & Politics, 33(2): 323–39.

  • Regulator of Social Housing (2022) Value for Money Metrics: Technical Note Guidance, Leeds: Regulator of Social Housing.

  • Rubery, J. (2015) Austerity and the future for gender equality in Europe, Industrial and Labor Relations Review (ILR) Review, 68(4): 715–41.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Rubery, J. and Grimshaw, D. (2015) The 40-year pursuit of equal pay: a case of constantly moving goalposts, Cambridge Journal of Economics, 39(2): 319–43. doi: 10.1093/cje/beu053

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Sandford, M. (2019) Local government: alternative models of service delivery, House of Commons Library Briefing Paper Number 05950.

  • Scanlon, K., Whitehead, C. and Arrigoitia, M.F. (eds) (2014) Social Housing in Europe, Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.

  • Smith, B. (2018) Social Housing in Wales, Glasgow: UK Collaborative Centre for Housing Evidence.

  • Smith, J. (2005) Housing, gender and social policy, in P. Somerville and N. Sprigings (eds) Housing and Social Policy: Contemporary Themes and Critical Perspectives, London: Routledge, pp 151–79.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Smith, S.R. (2010) Hybridization and nonprofit organizations: the governance challenge, Policy and Society, 29(3): 219–29. doi: 10.1016/j.polsoc.2010.06.003

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Smith, S.R. (2018) Nonprofit organizations and public administration: the state of the field and future directions, in E.C. Stazyk and H.G. Frederickson (eds) Handbook of American Public Administration, Cheltenham: Edward Elgar, pp 376–91.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Sørensen, E., Bryson, J. and Crosby, B. (2021) How public leaders can promote public value through co-creation, Policy & Politics, 49(2): 267–86.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Sowa, J.E. and Coleman Selden, S. (2003) Administrative discretion and active representation: an expansion of the theory of representative bureaucracy, Public Administration Review, 63(6): 700–10. doi: 10.1111/1540-6210.00333

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Srivastava, S.B. and Sherman, E.L. (2015) Agents of change or cogs in the machine? Reexamining the influence of female managers on the gender wage gap, American Journal of Sociology, 120(6): 1778–808. doi: 10.1086/681960

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Stainback, K., Kleiner, S. and Skaggs, S. (2016) Women in power: undoing or redoing the gendered organization?, Gender & Society, 30(1): 109–35. doi: 10.1177/0891243215602906

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Stojmenovska, D. (2019) Management gender composition and the gender pay gap: evidence from British panel data, Gender, Work & Organization, 26(5): 738–64. doi: 10.1111/gwao.12264

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Teasdale, S., McKay, S., Phillimore, J. and Teasdale, N. (2011) Exploring gender and social entrepreneurship: women’s leadership, employment and participation in the third sector and social enterprises, Voluntary Sector Review, 2(1): 57–76. doi: 10.1332/204080511X560620

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Themudo, N.S. (2009) Gender and the nonprofit sector, Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly, 38(4): 663–83. doi: 10.1177/0899764009333957

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Terjesen, S., Sealy, R. and Singh, V. (2009) Women directors on corporate boards: a review and research agenda, Corporate Governance: An International Review, 17(3): 320–37. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-8683.2009.00742.x

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Thompson, J. (1995) Sexism in the seminar: strategies for gender sensitivity in management education, Gender and Education, 7(3): 341–50. doi: 10.1080/09540259550039040

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Tomlinson, J. (2007) Employment regulation, welfare and gender regimes: a comparative analysis of women’s working-time patterns and work–life balance in the UK and the US, International Journal of Human Resource Management, 18(3): 401–15. doi: 10.1080/09585190601167466

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Tomlinson, J. and Durbin, S. (2010) Female part-time managers: work–life balance, aspirations and career mobility, Equality, Diversity and Inclusion, 29(3): 255–70. doi: 10.1108/02610151011028859

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • van Hek, M. and Van Der Lippe, T. (2019) Are female managers agents of change or cogs in the machine? An assessment with three-level manager–employee linked data, European Sociological Review, 35(3): 316–31. doi: 10.1093/esr/jcy054

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Vernimmen, P., Quiry, P. and Le Fur, Y. (2017) Corporate Finance: Theory and Practice, Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.

  • Walby, S. (2004) The European Union and gender equality: emergent varieties of gender regime, Social Politics: International Studies in Gender, State & Society, 11(1): 4–29. doi: 10.1093/sp/jxh024

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Walsh, J. (1999) Myths and counter-myths: an analysis of part-time female employees and their orientations to work and working hours, Work, Employment and Society, 13(2): 179–203. doi: 10.1177/09500179922117908

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Walsh, J. (2007) Equality and diversity in British workplaces: the 2004 workplace employment relations survey, Industrial Relations Journal, 38(4): 303–19. doi: 10.1111/j.1468-2338.2007.00450.x

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Welsh Government (2020) Housing Associations Boards equality and diversity, https://gov.wales/sites/default/files/publications/2020-10/housing-associations-boards-equality-and-diversity-report_0.pdf.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Welsh Government (2022a) Registered Social Landlords, Law Wales, https://law.gov.wales/registered-social-landlords-0.

  • Welsh Government (2022b) National indicators and national milestones for Wales, https://gov.wales/well-being-future-generations-national-indicators-2021-html#section-88969.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Wilkins, V.M. and Keiser, L.R. (2006) Linking passive and active representation by gender: the case of child support agencies, Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory, 16(1): 87–102. doi: 10.1093/jopart/mui023

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Wodon, Q., Onagoruwa, A., Malé, C., Montenegro, C., Nguyen, H. and de la Brière, B. (2020) How large is the gender dividend? Measuring selected impacts and costs of gender inequality, The Cost of Gender Inequality Notes Series, Washington, DC: The World Bank.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • World Bank (2020) World could achieve ‘gender dividend’ of $172 trillion from closing lifetime earnings gaps, Press release No: 2020/125/Gender.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • World Health Organization (2019) Delivered by Women, Led by Men: A Gender and Equity Analysis of the Global Health and Social Workforce, Geneva: World Health Organization.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Young, K. (1997) Beyond policy and politics: contingencies of employment equity, Policy and Politics, 25(4): 361–74. doi: 10.1332/030557397782453219

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Zhao, R. (2020) Are nonprofits more equitable than for-profits? An estimate of the gender pay gap in the US human services field, Human Service Organizations: Management, Leadership & Governance, 44(4): 343–31. doi: 10.1080/23303131.2020.1767746

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Zimmermann, F. (2022) Managing the gender wage gap – how female managers influence the gender wage gap among workers, European Sociological Review, 38(3): 355–70. doi: 10.1093/esr/jcab046

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
Rhys AndrewsUniversity of Cardiff, UK

Search for other papers by Rhys Andrews in
Current site
Google ScholarClose

AndrewsR4@cardiff.ac.uk

Content Metrics

May 2022 onwards Past Year Past 30 Days
Abstract Views 563 563 196
Full Text Views 415 415 41
PDF Downloads 217 217 33

Altmetrics

Dimensions