Cover Schooling in a Democracy
Schooling in a Democracy
Returning Education to the Public Service
Author:
Richard Riddell

Index

Author:
Richard Riddell
Publication Date:
06 Feb 2023
Pages:
146–152
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.51952/9781447362951.bm004
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This book is based on a study of schools governance, specifically of the academisation of English schools and its logical and organisational consequences such as the growth of MATs. It shows that the focus of Education Policy on progressively narrower student outcomes has driven a formerly open and local basis for governance to one increasingly conducted privately and behind closed doors. Increasing centralisation of government, allied with the deliberate reduction of local government, has led to governance arrangements conducted more and more remotely. The chaotic muddle and chaos of organisations between schools and central government makes the realisation of new policies extremely difficult and this had led gradually to the inability of both officials and politicians to recognise any need for change. This has been compounded by their respective professional (and social) backgrounds and these overall weaknesses are reflected elsewhere in the public service and in the private sector. Policy has become empty, futile and immersed in only one way of seeing the world. It is argued, in addition to ensuring their students succeed and progress, that schools need to have the capacity to work much more closely with their communities to help them succeed. There needs to be a more open and democratic approach to governance matters, building on good practice. Two illustrative case studies suggest what this might mean. Given current events in UK government, an addition to the Nolan principles is suggested and it is argued that different Education governance structures will need to emerge in time.

A

absolute poverty 16
academisation 1
100 per cent target 6, 29, 64
after 2010 27–29
local authorities role 24–25, 61–62, 67
and student outcomes 24
transfer of accountability 2–3
‘academy chains’ see multi-academy trusts (MATs)
accountability 63–64, 96, 102
‘Achieving Excellence Areas’ 94
admissions processes 46, 119
after-school clubs 50
Allen, Graham 72
‘alternative provision’ (AP) 46
Arbuthnot, G. 70, 97–98
Arm’s-Length Bodies (ALBs) 70, 85, 89, 91, 114
arms-length policy-focused agencies 71
Association of Directors of Children’s Services (ADCS) 54
attainment gaps 19
‘austerity’ 59–60, 113
autonomous headteachers 46

B

Ball, S. 46, 66, 68, 73, 103, 111
Barber, M. 65, 72
BBC 18
behavioural approaches 88
‘big bang’ (1988) 78
Blackpool 94–95
Blakely, G. 78, 79
branded schools 103
Brewer, M. 15, 16
Brexit referendum (2016) 15
Bristol 60, 61, 66, 83, 129
British Academy 8, 14, 17, 19, 23, 59, 105
British Educational Research Association (BERA) 105
British Rail 34
Bubb, S. 46

C

Calvert, J. 70, 97–98
Cameron, David 24–25, 29, 53, 70–71, 75, 82
Capita 67
care homes 98
Carter, D. 8, 27, 33–34, 100
The Case for a Fully Trust-led System (DfE 2022) 104
Castells, M. 113
catch-up funding 19
Cattan, S. 19
central government 25–27, 48, 83, 114
centralisation 26, 63, 82–84, 95–99, 102–103, 119
CEOs 36–37, 57, 69, 90
Challenge Advisers 27
chaos in Education 47, 107, 115
charitable sectors 118
childhood deaths 18
children’s centres 55, 118
civil service 86–93
‘class ceiling’ 93
classrooms 10
climate emergency 60
Clyne, R. 87
Coalition government (2010–16) 10, 20, 24, 91
‘coasting’ school assessments 39
coherence serving communities 107–108
collaboration and joint working 117
collective decisions 127
‘combined authority’ 52
combined school boards 27
community-centred work 49–52
community-engaged processes 115
community schooling 50
company boards 78–79
Conservative Manifesto (2019) 20
consultants 66–67
consultations 55–56, 111–112, 118–119
‘contempt’ for local governance 103
‘content free’ approach to management 88
‘continual readiness’ 39
‘contract culture’ 85
‘convertor’ status 28
‘coping’ model of the state 59
‘Coronavirus: lessons learnt’ (House of Commons Health and Social Care, and Science and Technology Committees) 96
corporate social responsibility (CSR) 61
‘cost of living crisis’ (2022) 15
council budgets 30
Cousin, S. 57, 61, 68, 109, 112, 127
COVID-19 pandemic
access to schooling 18–19
‘catch up’ programme 68–69, 100
centralised responses 95–99
disadvantage gap 22
economic recovery 15
post-pandemic education 8, 103
Crossley-Holland, J. 57, 61, 68, 109, 112, 127
Cullinane, C. 19
culturally imbued practices 93
‘curriculum intent’ 74–75

D

‘daily transitions’ to school 10, 108
data driven neoliberalism 88
Davis, Aeron 63, 72, 78, 80, 86–91, 96
Deaton review of inequality (IFS) 17
decentralisation 70–73, 75, 129
decision making 7, 65, 90–91
declining level of knowledge 90
deindustrialisation 59
‘deliverology’ (Barber) 65
‘delivery chains’ (Barber) 72
Deloitte 98
democracies 2, 48, 107, 115–116, 120
democratic authority 61, 112, 117–118
democratic behaviour and assumptions 128
demographics 56, 59, 121–122
Department for Education (DfE) 8, 29, 86
absence of strategies 87
delivery teams 32
government reforms 58
legitimacy of officials 70
no one doing anything 65
outcomes 39–40
regional offices 115
schools’ financial agreements 32
strategic policy making 64
Department for International Trade 87
Department of Trade and Industry 86, 87
‘depoliticisation’ of schooling 6
deregulation 78
destitution 14
developing capabilities 89
‘Develop(ing) MAT system capacity’ (DfE) 34
DfEE 25, 65
disadvantage gaps 20–22, 51
disadvantaged communities 51
disadvantaged students 19–22
‘disintermediation’ 3–4, 5, 103
Dorling, D. 16–18, 91

E

Early Intervention Foundation 72
ecosystems 7, 23, 75
Education Act 2002 25
Education Advisers 26, 32, 40, 41
Education Advisory Boards (EABs) 4, 42, 111
Education and Inspection Act 2006 27
Education and Skills Funding Agency (ESFA) 36, 89
Education Development Plans (LAs) 25
Education Endowment Foundation (EEF) 69, 72
Education Funding Agency (DfE) 105
Education, Health and Care Plan (EHCP) 124
‘Education Improvement Areas’ (DfE) 94
‘Education Investment Areas’ 76
see also Opportunity Areas (OAs)
Education Policy Institute (EPI) 20–21
Education Scrutiny Commission 119
education strategies 127
educational coherence 103
‘Educational Excellence Everywhere’ (DfE 2016) 27, 29, 44, 53–54, 76, 94
educational performance 32
Educational technocracy 49
educational trajectories 10, 93
Edwards, Michael 50
effective governance 7
see also governance
effective networks around schools 34
effective public service systems 34–35
elected local governments 60
elite education 92–93
‘Elitist Britain’ (SMC/ Sutton Trust) 22, 92
Emotional and Behavioural Difficulties/Needs 125
English as an additional language (EAL) 25
English Baccalaureate 39
Excellence in Cities (DfEE) 66
‘Excellence in Schools’ (DfEE) 24
expert knowledge 90–91

F

failing schools 25–27, 28
‘Failures of State’ (Sunday Times) 96–97
‘financialisation’ of the UK economy 78
Foucault, M. 68
free school meals (FSMs) 19, 25
free schools 42, 43
Friedman, S. and D. 93
Fullan, M. 23
funding allocations 63, 69
‘funds of knowledge’ 51
further education colleges 126

G

Gates Foundation 69–70
GCSE performance outcomes 19–20
Gibton, Dan 131
Gingrich, J. 70, 89
Gini coefficient 14–15
Goldthorpe, J. 21, 92, 94
good school places 29, 42–43, 54, 112
Gove, Michael 64
governance 1–13
decision-making powers 7
disintermediation 3–4, 103
failures of state 99–100
and local communities 9
‘middle tier’ organisations 83
narrowing of national thinking 11
policy proposals for 105
regulation, supervision and support 31
of schools 45–46
and student outcomes 5
‘tri-levels’ of reform 23
weaknesses 7, 103
government expectations 71
government projects 89
Government Property Agency (GPA) 52
grading system 20
Graeber, D. 113
Greany, T. 45, 74, 75, 76, 108
Great Recession (2007/8) 113
Greenberg, J. 51
Grenfell fire (2017) 17
Gross Domestic Product (GDP) 14–15, 16
The Guardian 69

H

Hambleton, R. 60, 83, 129
Hamlyn Foundation 70
‘hands off ’ shire counties 106
‘hard’ federations 27
Harford, Sean 8
Hargreaves, Andy 34
Hargreaves, D. 45
Harris, J. 83–84
headteacher advisory boards (HTB) 4–5, 40, 42
headteacher representative bodies 56
Health White Paper (DHSC) 61, 96
Her Majesty’s Treasury 63–64
Herrington, Dominic 36
‘heterarchs’ 69, 75
hierarchical structures 94
Higham, R. 45, 74, 75, 76, 108
Hinds, Damian 41, 53
‘hollowing out’ the state 59
Hood, C. 59
horizontal networks 34–35
hospitals discharging the elderly 98
House of Commons Education Select Committee 36
House of Commons Foreign Affairs Select Committee 2
House of Commons Health and Social Care and Science and Technology Select Committees 96
House of Commons Public Accounts Committee 32, 67
House of Lords Youth Unemployment Committee 8
housing 17–18
‘hubs’ 52
Hughes, M. 10
humanitarian foundations 69–70
Hutchison, J. 20

I

immediacy 4, 81
improvement boards 57
independent schools 92
Industrial Strategy Council (ISC) 87
inequalities 14–18
inflation 15, 16
Inner London Education Authority 117
inspections 35–36, 38–39, 73–74
Institute for Fiscal Studies (IFS) 16, 17
Institute for Government 71
institutional investors 79–80
‘integrated care services’ 96
‘Interim Executive Board’ 26
intermediate organisations see middle tier organisations
internal markets 78
‘interventionist’ city authorities 106
interviews 131–132
invitations to businesses 71
inward migration 120–121
IT equipment 19
Italy 99

J

Jackson, B. 21
James, C. 102
Johnson, Boris 116
Joint Practice Development (JPD) 45
Joseph Rowntree Foundation (JRF) 14
Junemann, C. 73

K

Kennedy, Helena 129
‘kicking the can’ on decision making 78, 80–81
‘knowledge rich’ curricula 69, 74
KPMG 71
Krastev, Ivan 1, 2, 103–104

L

Labour government (1997–2010) 24, 66
Labour Party manifesto (2019) 105
Lawn, M. 46, 79
learning by imitation 51
Lewis, Michael 120
liberal democracies 59
life expectancy 18
limited scope strategies 80
local authorities (LA) 53–58
academies replacing services 67
admissions 46
budget cuts 30
collaborating with reluctant organisations 58
‘Commissioning Plan’ 125
contract tracing teams 97
democratic authority 117–118
Education Development Plan 25
Education responsibilities 29–30, 52–54
establishing trusts 104
geographical areas 44
headteacher meetings 56
implementation plans 66
incompetence 30
maintained schools 40
‘needs’ and entitlements 127
new schools 42–43, 121–123
reviewing outcomes 40–41
revision of strategies 28–29
role in schooling 24–25
school places 29, 54, 55, 112
school standards boards 57
SEND provision 29, 55, 124–127
setting up trusts 104
variations in local areas 106–107
local autonomy 46
local committees 114
local communities
and governance 9
schools 102–103
local community organisations 108
local ecosystems 23, 75
local education authorities 25, 31
local enterprise partnerships (LEPs) 58
Local Governing Bodies (LGBs) 36, 44, 45, 48, 102, 122
local government 52–53, 59–62, 106–107, 111–113, 116–118
Local Government Act 1972 117
Local Government Association (LGA) 117
local government-enabled bodies 61
Local Leaders of Education (LLEs) 26
local school ecosystems 43–47, 68, 69, 81, 106
Local School Standards Boards 42, 57, 81–82, 109
locally managed, contempt for 96
LocatED 43
lockdowns 15, 19, 98
Lodge, M. 59
London 117
London Challenge development project 117
Lord, P. 46

M

management performance 80
‘managerialism’ 9
market-driven public policies 82
market mechanisms 33
marketisation 59, 78–81, 103
Marmot, M. 18, 59
Marsden, D. 21
Martin, Doug 48, 49, 50–51, 123
Maths ‘hubs’ 41
maximising financial returns 79
Mazzucato, M. 79
McGoey, L. 69, 70
McInerney, L. 8, 27, 33–34
Members of Parliament 118
metropolitan areas 117
middle tier organisations 31–32, 43–47, 68, 83, 102
Midwinter, E. 69, 123
Milburn, Alan 71–72
Moll, L. 51
Montacute, R. 19
Morphet, J. 4
multi-academy trusts (MATs) 1–6, 28, 48, 102–105
academies relating to 46
amalgamations and takeovers 79–80
bids 123
boards 76, 80
CEOs 36–37, 57, 69
coherence based on geography 107
educational scrutiny 36
governance 4, 44–45
improvement boards 57
inspection frameworks 35–37
new academies/schools 28, 42
professional organisations 103
public accountability 102
random development 75
re-legislating roles 108
roles and responsibilities 34
‘scheme of delegation’ (DfE) 79
school governance 44
and school improvement 108
SEND provision 124
vertical ‘holes’ 81
weaknesses 64
multi-authority collaborations 117
multi-disciplinary professional working 128

N

National Audit Office (NAO) 18, 32, 89, 98
National Autistic Society 125
National College for Teaching and Leadership 26
National Deaf Children’s Society 125
National Education Policy 5
National Funding Formula 122
National Health Service (NHS) 98–99
National Leaders of Education (NLEs) 26–27, 33, 41, 57–58, 110
national policy making 63, 76
National Schools Commissioner 32, 44, 115
national strategies 6, 66, 100
National Tutoring Programme 68–69, 100
national unity 105–106
neoliberalism 23, 60, 83–84
network governance 45, 68
neutral behaviour 93
New Labour 65
New Public Management (NPM) 80, 85–86, 88
‘A New Relationship with Schools’ (DfE and Ofsted) 27
new schools 42–43, 121–123
New Schools Network 72–73
‘NHS Test and Trace’ 98
Nolan principles 101, 127–129
non-performing schools 82
numerical outcomes 49

O

occupational opportunities 21
‘Occupy’ movement 113
OECD 16
Office for Budget Responsibility (OBR) 15
Ofsted 38–40, 73–75
‘Ofsted-think’ in schools 73
One City Approach (Hambleton) 60, 83, 129
open sessions 119–120, 122
openness 115–116
Operation Cygnus 97
Opportunity Areas (OAs) 72, 76, 94–95, 109, 127
Opportunity for All (DfE 2022) 3, 5, 20, 23, 64, 68, 69
organisational chaos 82
organisational regimes 68
‘outcomes not methods’ mantra 5, 51, 75
outreach 50
outstanding schools 39
‘over-centralised’ states 65
Oxbridge 92

P

paradoxes of expectations 85
‘parallel inspections’ 41
parents and non-performing schools 82
Partnership Boards 94
partnership bodies 107
Pateman, C. 116
patronage 70
performance related contracts 80
‘performance tables’ 39–40
personal protective equipment (PPE) 97, 99, 100
Pickett, K. 16
‘place-based leadership’ 60, 83
policy choices 76
policy heterarchies 73
policy implementation 66–67, 68
policy making 5–9, 63, 66–70, 75, 82–83
policy realisation 71, 115
polycentricity 68, 76
population growth 120–121
poverty 16
Power inquiry (White) 129–130
‘principles of public life’ (GOV.UK) see Nolan principles
private consumption 16
private sector organisations
COVID-19 pandemic 99
deregulation 78–81
in Education 66–67
privatisations 59
privilege 22, 95
professional politicians 90
Progress 8, 39
‘P(rogress)’ grade 39
project management 89
public dialogue 126
public discussions 6, 9, 55
Public Education 101
Public Health England 97
public institutions 113–114
public investment 16
public scrutiny 70, 101
public services 2, 34, 48, 115
Pupil Referral Units 125

Q

quality assured organisations 67
quality of teaching 51

R

railways 34, 96
Randstad NV 69
Reay, Diane 94
recession 2007–8 15
recession 2020 15
redemocratisation 54, 101, 113–114, 118
reforms 24, 104
regime of truth (Foucault) 68
Regional Directors (RDs) 3
‘Regional Education Partnership Boards’ 42, 111
Regional Education Partnerships 81–82, 109
regional offices 32
regional school improvement strategy 57
Regional Schools Commissioners (RSCs) 3–4, 32–34, 36, 40–44, 56, 73, 79–81, 109–111, 121
relative poverty 16
‘remediation curricula’ 51
repoliticisation 101
‘requires improvement’ evaluation (RI) 39, 50
The Resolution Foundation 15
‘Rethinking Local’ (LGA) 117
‘return to learning’ 49
reviewing outcomes 40–41
‘right accents’ 93
role of schooling 51
Rousseau, J.-J. 54

S

‘schemes of delegation’ (DfE) 4, 79
school governance 44, 47
school improvement
acting collectively 110
joint working arrangements 112
LA roles 54, 62
MATs 108
regional strategies 57
responsibilities for 41–42, 45
School Improvement Partners 66
school leaders 76–77
‘School Organisation Committees’ 43
schooling
and LAs 53–58
as a ‘mixed market’ 64
as a public service 106
unstable assemblage 47
schools
attendance during lockdowns 19
ecosystems 43–47, 68, 69, 81, 106
engagement with communities 50
governance framework 45–46
importance to councils 112
local communities 48–50, 81, 102–103
and Ofsted 73–75
provision of good places 29, 42–43, 54, 112
‘return to learning’ 49
self-valuation 39
sites for 43
structural reform 24
scrutiny and regulation 31–32
scrutiny commissions 52, 55, 121
secondary schools 49, 119, 120–124
secrecy 2
Secretary of State for Education 64
Secretary of State for Transport 96
‘SEF’ (Self- Evaluation Form) 73–74
self-improving schools system (SISS) 26, 33–34
self-valuation 39
senior civil servants 90–93
SERCO 67
‘shadow state’ (Ball) 68
Shaping the COVID Decade (British Academy) 8, 14, 17, 19, 23, 59, 105
share options 79
shareholder value 78–79
short-term contracts 78
short-term shareholder value 80
short-term strategies 2, 79
Simkins, T. 57, 107
Simon, C. 10
Single Academy Trusts 44
Social, Emotional and Mental Health (SEMH) needs 125
‘Social Housing’ White Paper (MHCLG) 30
social inequality 14, 17–22
social mobility 72, 76, 91–94
Social Mobility Commission (SMC) 21, 71–72, 91–94
Social Mobility Foundation 72
Social Mobility Strategy (Cabinet Office) 71–72, 91
social mobility strategy (DfE) 10
social networks 93
social policy aims 76
social reproduction 92–93
‘soft’ federations 27
Special Education Needs or Disabilities (SEND) 9, 28, 55, 124–127
Code of Practice (2014) 25
Green Paper (DfE) 83
Specialist Leaders of Education (SLEs) 26
specialist schools 124
‘sponsored’ academies 27
sponsors 26, 28, 44
staff turnover 86
stagnant occupational structures 94
stakeholders 42–43
Starmer, Keir 90
Strategic School Improvement Fund (SSIF) 42, 82
‘structural mobility’ 21–22
student achievement 32
student educational trajectories 10
student outcomes 1, 5, 38, 40, 51
‘studied’ informality 93
‘studied neutrality’ 93
‘subsidiarity’ 4
‘Success Profile’ (Davis) 88–89
Sunday Times 96–97
support services 33
‘systemless system’ (Lawn) 46

T

‘taking control’ 96
‘talking shops’ 58
Teaching School Hub Council (TSHC) 56
Teaching Schools 56–58
Teaching Schools Council (TSC) 41–42
tendering 66–67
Test, Trace and Isolate systems 97–98
30-year plans 60
Tocqueville, A. de 116
top civil servants 91
‘tri-levels’ 23
Tribal 67
trust schools (2006 Act) 27
‘tutoring delivery’ data 69

U

understanding context 9–10, 88–89
university student fees 113
‘Unlocking Talent, Fulfilling Potential’ (DfE) 94
urban unitary authorities 119

V

vertical networks 34–35
voluntary sectors 118
vulnerable children 18–19

W

wage growth 15
‘washing machine’ diagram (PMSU) 65
weaker schools 26–27
Westminster politics culture 90, 96
‘wicked’ issues 68
Wilkinson, R. 16
Wolf, Rachel 73

Y

Young, Toby 73

Z

‘Zero COVID’ policy 99
Zizek, S. 105

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