References to tables appear in bold type. References to endnotes show both the page number and the note number (35n3).

A

ableism 97–98, 130
Aboutreika, Mohamed 174
Abu Dhabi 172
ACPO See Association of Chief Police Officers (ACPO)
Action Against Discrimination 35
activism 22, 53, 54–55, 160, 162, 165–167, 170–172
Adams, A. 109
administration See football administration
AFC Ajax (Netherlands) 35n3
Africa Cup of Nations (2022) 87
Agnew, R. 51
Ahmed, S. 113, 133, 135, 136
Ajibola, Aji 73
Akram, Wasim 64
Akse P19 48, 54
Allen, S. 53
allies 167, 168, 169, 170, 171–172, 175, 176, 177n6
Allison, Sam 73
Allport, Gordon 45, 46, 152
Aluko, Eniola 125, 128–129, 133, 135–136
Alves, Dani 79
Amann (Kop Outs) 168, 170–171, 172, 174
Anderson, E. 104, 106, 109, 111–112, 160
Anderson, Viv 47–48, 63, 126
The Anfield Wrap 171
anonymity 27, 80, 88, 93, 95, 97–98, 110, 130
antidiscrimination
effectiveness of campaigns 128–129, 137
LGBT+ campaigns 69, 159–160
policies 34
See also Kick It Out
anti-Jewish racism 21, 23, 24, 30
anti-Judaism 21
anti-LGBT+-phobia 111, 112
See also homophobia ; LGBT+
antilocution 44–46, 55
antiracism
governing bodies on 68–72
initiatives 6, 13–14, 65–67, 77, 90–92, 93–94, 95–96
research on, lack of 8, 13
sexism within 128
See also racism
antisemitism
about 20–22, 35n1, 185
chanting 20, 23, 28, 32, 34
forms of 23–24, 25
hissing noises 19–20, 32, 35, 185
incidents of 19–20, 23, 24, 27, 189
legislation 182
nature of in football 28–31
online 29–31, 32
research on 19, 86
See also Tottenham Hotspur (Spurs) Football Club
anti-vax 96
anti-Zionism 21, 22, 24
Aragonés, Luis 69
Arsenal Football Club 32, 66, 161, 164, 170
Asante, Anita 136
AS Roma (Italy) 77
Association of Chief Police Officers (ACPO) 191–192
Aston Villa 11, 30, 60, 65
Atkinson, Ron 44–45
Auld, Lord Justice 191
Australia 22, 86, 108
Ayling, Luke 168

B

Babajide, Rinsola 125, 134, 135, 136
Back, Les
on contingency 51
cyber racism 74
on Euro 2020 47, 48
football culture, race/racism in 7, 13–14, 28, 29
non-playing positions, racism in 72
backstage (virtual) 88–89, 97
See also social media
Baddiel, David 12, 30, 184
Baddiel, Ivor 184
Bailey, M. 133
Banks, Tony 186
banning orders See football banning orders (FBOs)
Barker, K. 95–96
Barnes, John 47–48, 60–61, 63
Barnes, Simon 181
Barnet Football Club 73
Batson, Brendan 45
Beckford, Jermaine 168
Beloff, M. 181
Bennett, H. 91
Biden, Joe 76
bin Salman Al-Saud, Mohammed 173
biological sex See sex
biphobia 103, 112–114, 114, 115, 116
bisexuals 110, 146, 161, 167, 174, 175
Black athletes
acceptance, ‘earning’ of 51
racism against 1–2, 5–6, 45–46, 52–53, 79–80
solidarity with 49
taking the knee 53
treatment of 7, 10–11, 107
See also racism
Blackburn Rovers Football Club 65, 72
Black Lives Matter
feminism in football and 126–127, 135
taking the knee for 11, 48, 53, 73–74
US Soccer response to 75
Black managers 72–73
Black Power civil rights movement 53
Black supporters 10–11
Black women 127, 133–134, 135–136, 137
Blissett, Luther 47–48
Block, B. 191
Boro Fusion 65
Bourdieu, P. 150–151
Brackenridge, C. 160
Bradford City 65
Brexit 48, 74
Bridges, Emily 145
Brighton 184, 192
British Asian players 127–128, 134
British Social Attitudes (BSA) survey 105, 108
British Transport Police 185, 186
bromances 111
Browne, K. 145
BSA See British Social Attitudes (BSA) survey
Burdsey, Daniel 9–10, 48, 53, 129, 133, 136
Burnett, Tony 115
Bury, J. 113, 128, 134
Butler, J. 128, 134
Buzuvis, E. 149–150
Byrne, B. 134

C

Call It Out campaign 169
Cameron, David 33
Campaign Against Antisemitism 35
Canada 106, 108
Carney, Karen 87
Carrington, Ben 44, 48
carrot emojis 96
Carter, N. 104–105
Cashmore, E. 110, 160, 174
Caudwell, Jayne 124, 133
Cavallo, Josh 104
chanting
about 182
antisemitic 20, 23, 28, 32, 34
as hate crime 181, 182–183, 184, 185–187, 193
LGBTphobic 110, 112, 116, 160, 163–164, 169, 170–172, 177n7, 188
racist 7, 10, 79, 84, 87, 131, 185, 188, 190–191
Chelsea Football Club 7, 30–31, 32, 73, 188
Chief Constable of Derbyshire, Gough v 190, 191
Children in Need (BBC) 64
cisgender 144, 151
Clarke, Greg 161
class-based discrimination 53–54, 132, 147
Cleland, J. 110, 160, 161, 169, 174
Clough, Brian 107
Club Atlético Atlanta (Argentina) 35n3
clubs
antiracism initiatives within 14, 15, 64–65
fan base, relationships with 16
identities 8
multiculturalism within 10–11
reputations of 7
responsibility of 97
See also football cultures ; specific clubs (e.g., Chelsea Football Club)
coaches
antisemitic incidents 19
diversity, lack of in 6, 72, 73, 75–76
education of, need for 177n7
hate crimes by 69, 194
Coady, Conor 168
Code for Crown Prosecutors 192
collateral vandalism 51
College of Policing 1, 130, 185, 192
Collins, Damian 112
Collins, Jason 111
colonialism 20, 22, 52, 62, 63, 133, 135
Combat 18 26
Communications Act (2003) 194
communities See local communities
Community Security Trust (CST) 23, 24, 24, 25, 30, 33, 35
Complaint (Ahmed) 136
Concacaf (Confederation of North, Central America and Caribbean Association Football) 71–72
Confederation of North, Central America and Caribbean Association Football See Concacaf
Connell, Raewyn 107, 111
context vandalism 51
contingency 51
Corbyn, Jeremy 22
Corriere dello Sport (Italy) 77–78
courts, role in hate crimes 184, 188–191
COVID-19 pandemic
antisemitism during 24, 26–27, 28
food voucher scheme 50
hate crime spike during 162
HBT discrimination during 114, 115
sporting events post-pandemic 48, 192–194
Covid Summer School Fund 50
CPS See Crown Prosecution Service (CPS)
Crabbe, Tim 7, 13–14, 72
Crenshaw, Kimberlé 127
cricket
antiracism discussions 15
and identities (local, national) 9
players 64
racism 66, 177n3
social media boycott 93
Crime and Disorder Act (1998) 130, 131, 183, 193–194
Crime Survey for England and Wales 162–163
Criminal Justice Act (2003) 130, 183
critical race theory 52–54
Crown Prosecution Service (CPS) 31, 95–96, 185, 191–192, 193, 194–195
Crystal Palace 66, 73
CST See Community Security Trust (CST)
Culture, Media and Sport Committee 115, 160, 161, 164, 175, 177n3
Cunneen, C. 52
Cunningham (Proud Canaries) 166, 167, 168, 169–170, 172
Cunningham, Laurie 45
Curry, T. 106
cyber racism 74
See also racism ; social media
Cybersmile Foundation 94
Cymru Premier (Welsh Premier League) 189

D

Daley, Tom 111
dangerous and dirty (DAD) jobs 104
Daniels, Jake 104, 169, 177n6
Dean, Dixie 185
de Boise, S. 111
decolonization 9
Deeney, Troy 87
de Miguel Molina, M. 49
Desailly, Marcel 44
De Siervo, L. 78
Dhalu, Sabby 54
Diamond, Neil 12
Director of Public Prosecutions v Stoke on Trent Magistrates’ Court 187–188, 190, 191
disabilities
attitudes towards 16
hate crime/discrimination based on 1, 26, 71–72, 109, 137, 160
intersectionality of 131–132
legislation 125, 129, 130, 183
discrimination
class-based 53–54, 132, 147
faith-based 26–28, 27
HBT (homophobia, biphobia, transphobia) 103, 112–114, 114, 115, 116, 144–145
See also antidiscrimination ; antisemitism ; HBT (homophobia, biphobia, transphobia) ; racism
disinhibition 88
diversity
increase in 10, 11, 12, 47, 73, 74, 160–161
lack of 6, 75–76, 160
See also Kick It Out ; LGBT+
Diversity Handbook (Concacaf) 71–72
Doan, P. 145, 147–148
Donnarumma, Gianluigi 83
Doyle, J. 48, 53
drift vandalism 51
Duggan, M. 131, 132
Dulwich Hamlet 146

E

education 166, 171–172, 177n7
EFL See English Football League (EFL)
England national team 11–12, 74
See also Euro 2020
England Rugby Football Union 145
English Football League (EFL)
about 181, 185
on antisemitism 22, 35
on homophobia 164–165, 170
Kick It Out funding 90
role in addressing racism/ discrimination 97
social media boycott 93
Together 165
#Enough campaign 90, 93, 134–135
Equality Act 2010 21, 149
Equality, Diversity and Inclusion Strategy 2020–2024 (The FA) 164
equity See LGBT+
Euro 1988 (Germany) 63
Euro 2000 (Belgium) 187
Euro 2016 (France) 87, 92
Euro 2020
anthem (England national team) 12
antiracist initiatives following 15, 30
Equal Game campaign 164
final game 1, 5–6, 12, 47–48, 63, 83
hate crimes after 48–49, 64, 95
LGBTphobia 172
online (cyber) racism 1–2, 5–6, 12, 74, 83–84, 87
taking the knee during 11, 73
European Football Championship See Euro 1988 (Germany) ; Euro 2000 (Belgium) ; Euro 2016 (France) ; Euro 2020
Evra, Patrice 10
exploratory vandalism 51

F

The FA See The Football Association (The FA)
Facebook See social media
faith-based discrimination 26–28, 27
fan cultures See football cultures
fan groups
antiracism initiatives 13–16
LGBT+ 161–162, 164, 165–167, 170, 173
racism within 7–8, 11
fans See fan groups ; football cultures ; supporters
Fans For Diversity 66
Fans Supporting Foodbanks 170
Farage, Nigel 73
FARE See Football Against Racism in Europe (FARE)
FareShare 50
Fashanu, Amal 166
Fashanu, Justin 106–107, 161, 166, 168, 177n5
FBOs See football banning orders (FBOs)
Fédération Internationale de Football Association See FIFA (Fédération Internationale de Football Association)
feminism 125, 126, 127, 129–132, 133–134, 137
Ferdinand, Anton 10
Ferdinand, Rio 195
FIFA (Fédération Internationale de Football Association)
discriminatory language 177n4
Football Leadership Diversity Code (2020) 164
on homophobia 164, 172
racism, addressing 68–69, 79
social media boycott 93
trans participation 148, 151
FIFA Task Force Against Racism and Discrimination 68–69
FIFA World Cup
Italy (1990) 63
Qatar (2022) 15, 61, 87, 160, 164, 172
Russia (2018) 69, 189
Fine, R. 20
FLA See Football Lads Alliance (FLA)
Floyd, George 75
food poverty campaign 49–50, 53, 54, 55
food vouchers 50, 54
Football (Offences) Act (1991) 87, 112, 131, 182, 183, 186, 189, 190
Football (Offences and Disorder) Act (1999) 182, 186, 189
football administration 6, 15, 72–73, 76, 194
Football Against Racism in Europe (FARE) 77–78
The Football Association (The FA)
on antisemitism 22, 33, 34, 35
Equality, Diversity and Inclusion Strategy 2020–2024 164
on homophobia 112–113, 128, 169–170
Kick It Out funding 90
role in addressing racism/discrimination 97
sexism 135
social media boycott 93
trans participation 145, 147–148, 149–151
women’s football, banning of 105
Football Association Taskforce on Tackling Antisemitism and Islamophobia (Mann) 34
football banning orders (FBOs)
about 190, 193–194
for antisemitism 28–29, 33, 189
effectiveness of 188, 189–190, 194–195
for English clubs (1980s) 59
introduction of 186–187
for online hate crimes 95, 163
for racism 131
football cultures
antiracism strategies 13–15
antisemitism 19–20, 26–27, 27, 28–29
immigrants 60–61
race/racism studies of 7–8, 13–14
racism 7, 8–9, 10, 52
traditional 10, 26, 46
See also antisemitism ; clubs ; homophobia ; racism
football hooligan See hooliganism
Football Lads Alliance (FLA) 1, 35n2
Football Leadership Diversity Code (FIFA) (2020) 164
Football League See English Football League (EFL)
Football Moves People 74
Football Online Hate Working Group (Kick It Out) 30, 91, 97
Football Spectators Act (1989) 131, 189
Football Supporters’ Association 176
Football Task Force 186
Football v Homophobia 112, 113, 165, 173
Formula 1, 93
Fowler, Robbie 62
France 108
Frank, Anne 26
frontstage (virtual) 88–89, 97
See also social media
Fugazzotto, Simone 78

G

Gaetz, Matt 75
Gardiner, S. 112
Garland, Jon 131
Garza, A. 127
Gay Football Supporters’ Network 192
Gay Games 106
Gay Gooners 161, 164, 170
gay men
athletes, acceptance of 103–104, 109
hostility towards 106–107
physical activity levels 146
sports, participation in 161
gender
medicalization of 145, 147, 148–149, 150, 154
as protected characteristic 21, 131, 149
sex and 147
transgender definition 144
tyranny of 147–148
gender identities
about 144
and genderism 147, 148
legislation 130, 143, 148–149, 183
self-declaration of 148–149
genderism 145, 147
gender reassignment 147, 149, 150, 152, 163
Gender Recognition Act (2004) 143, 148
Germany 24, 26, 28–29, 47, 51, 106, 108, 172
Gerstenfeld, P.B. 1
Gill, Sunny 73
Gilroy, Paul 8
girls
antidiscrimination campaigns, ineffectiveness of 129
hate crimes against 125, 127, 133, 134
marginalization of 126, 128
Goffman, E. 88–89
Goldring, Mr Justice 191
Good Practice Guide on Diversity and Anti-Discrimination (FIFA) 177n4
Good Practice Guide on Diversity and Anti-Discrimination (FIFA) 68
Gough v Chief Constable of Derbyshire 190, 191
governing bodies See antiracism ; Concacaf (Confederation of North, Central America and Caribbean Association Football) ; FIFA (Fédération Internationale de Football Association) ; homophobia ; UEFA (Union of European Football Associations)
Grayson, E. 181
Grenfell Tower 12
Gueye, Idrissa 174
Gullit, Ruud 73

H

Hall, L. 21
Hall, N. 153, 182
Hall, Stuart 8
Hamad, H. 52
Hamilton, Blair 145–146
‘hand of God’ goal (1986) 59
Hansen, M. 111
hate 1, 33, 129–130
hate crimes
about 1, 129–130, 182
chanting 181, 182–183, 184, 185–187, 193
and feminism 131–132
hate speech 33
increase in 108
intersectionality and 125–126, 131–132, 133–134
investigations of 48, 95–96
legislation 130–132, 182–184, 188–191, 192–195
at matches 87
misogyny as 125, 126, 131, 132–134
online 1–3, 29–30, 63–64, 74, 84–92, 177n2, 192 (See also social media )
protected groups (five) 130, 131
racial 30–31
religious 22–24, 24, 25, 26–27, 27, 129, 183, 193
research of online 84–86
vandalism 45–47, 48–52, 55
See also specific hate crimes (e.g. Islamophobia, HBT, antisemitism, racism)
HBT (homophobia, biphobia, transphobia)
discrimination/hate crimes 103, 112–114, 114, 115, 116, 144–145, 162–163
social acceptance of 97–98
Healy, Jane 131–132
hegemonic masculinity 107, 148
Heidenry, R. 49, 55
Hekma, G. 106
Henderson, Jordan 94, 168
Henry, Thierry 69, 94
Heysel Stadium disaster 59, 60
hierarchies 19, 22, 107, 130, 152–153
Hill, Ricky 47–48
Hillsborough disaster 60, 168, 181, 186, 191
Hines, S. 144
hissing noises (antisemitic) 19–20, 32, 35, 185
Hitler, Adolf 185
Hitzlsperger, Thomas 110
HIV/AIDS 105, 183
Holocaust 21, 24, 28, 32
Home Office
on hate crimes at matches 87, 186–187, 192–194
increase in hate crimes 109
religious hate crimes 24
transphobia hate crimes 144–145
violence in hate crimes 45
See also United Kingdom Football Policing Unit (UKFPU)
homophobia
discrimination/hate crimes 103, 112–114, 114, 115, 116
education 166, 171–172, 177n7
governing bodies on 164–165, 169–170
history of 104–106, 108
hypotheses 161
legislation 182
online 110–111
paradox 160
social acceptance of 97–98
in sports 106–108
homosexuality 103–104, 108
hooliganism 7–8, 59, 60, 61, 112, 184, 190
Hopkins Burke, R. 51
hormone therapy 147, 149–150, 151, 154
horse racing 93
hostility 1, 2, 21, 106–107, 125, 129–131, 183–184
Human Dignity Trust 176
Human Rights Act (1998) 190
Humphries, Connor 109
hypothetical inclusivity 110
Hysén, Antonio 109
Hysén, Glenn 62, 109

I

identities See clubs ; gender identities ; local identity ; national identity
IHRA See International Holocaust Remembrance Alliance (IHRA)
immigrants
experiences of 59–60
football culture 60–61
national identity, impact on 9
national team, playing on 74
Ince, Paul 72
inclusion See LGBT+
inclusive masculinity theory 111
inclusivity 109–111, 165–166, 168
inclusivity myth 47–48, 51
The Independent 192
in-groups 1, 152
Instagram See social media
Inter Milan (Italy) 77
International Holocaust Remembrance Alliance (IHRA) 21–22, 23, 35
intersectionality
about 125, 127, 131–132
hate crime legislation 131–132, 137
hate crimes 53, 55, 163
women’s experiences of in sport 125–126, 132–136
IRA See Irish Republican Army (IRA)
Irish Republican Army (IRA) 185
Irrespective of Sexual Orientation (The FA) 112
Islamophobia
antisemitism, compared with 21
as faith-based discrimination 28
hate crimes 61, 188
legislation 182
research on 86
social acceptance of 97–98
Italy 26, 76–79, 80, 108

J

Jerusalem Declaration of Antisemitism 21, 22
Jews
football players 19
history 20–21
population 22
as a race 183
religious hate crimes against 23, 28–29, 30–31
See also antisemitism
Johnson, Boris 49, 50, 54, 73–74, 126, 132, 146
Jönsson, A. 91
journalists 75, 80, 98, 111, 116, 194
Judaism 21
Jurasz, O. 95–96
The Justin Campaign 112

K

Kaepernick, Colin 11, 75
Kane, Harry 83
Katz, J. 46
Kearns, C. 85, 86, 88, 89, 96, 111
Keleher, A. 108
Khan, Imran 64
Khazir, Amjid 59–67
Kian, E.M. 110, 111
Kick It Out
categories of discrimination 26
efficacy of campaign 6, 10
Football Online Hate Working Group 30, 91, 97
funders 90
HBT hate crimes/discrimination 103, 112–114, 114, 115, 116, 163, 192
Klick It Out campaign 90, 92
reports (hate/discrimination/abuse) 26–27, 27, 87, 91, 177n1
role of 14, 160
sexism of campaigns 128
smartphone app 27, 90–91, 113, 114
social media boycott 93
workshops 66
The Y-Word 33, 34
Kilvington, D. 88–89, 90, 92, 93, 96
Kimmel, M.S. 104
Klick It Out campaign 90, 92
Klopp, Jürgen 171
knee See taking the knee
Kop Outs 164, 170, 171, 174
Krept & Konan 12–13
Kyeremeh, S. 128

L

Labour Party 22
language
antisemitic 24, 25, 35
homophobic 110, 111, 116, 163, 166, 168, 171, 173
racist 6, 24, 44–45, 74, 88, 188
Law Commission 130, 132
Lawrence, Stephen 45, 129, 182
Laws, Lord Justice 190
Lazio ultras (Italy) 26
League Managers Association 93
Leeds 7
Leeds Pride 168
legislation, hate crime 130–132, 182–184, 188–191, 192–195
lesbians 108, 132, 146, 161, 174, 175
Let’s Kick Racism Out of Football See Kick It Out
LGBT+
allies 169
anti-LGBT+-phobia 111, 112
athletes, support for 111
education 166, 171–172, 177n7
fan groups 161–162, 164, 165–167, 170, 173
inclusivity 165–166, 168
physical activity levels of 146
policy influencing 167, 169–170
socializing 167, 170
supporters (fans) 116
visibility 165, 166, 167–168
LGBTphobia 111, 112, 160, 162–165, 166–167, 169, 170–172, 177n7, 188
LGBT Survey, National 162, 163, 173
Lightning Seeds 12
Liston, Katie 98
Liverpool Football Club 134
Liverpool players 60–61, 62–63, 94, 109, 134
Liverpool supporters (fans) 32, 54, 60, 62–63, 168, 170–172, 186
ŁKS Łódź (Poland) 26, 35n3
local communities 49, 65
local identity 14–15
Long, M. 51
Lukaku, Romelu 77

M

MacKenzie, G. 150
Macpherson enquiry 129, 182
Magrath, Rory 104, 107, 110, 113
Maguire, Harry 83
Major League Soccer (MLS) 75–76
Malicious Communications Act (1988) 194
management See football administration
Manavis, S. 94
Manchester City 66, 173
Mann, J. 34, 35
Mannix, Joel 73
Marschall, S. 49
masculinity 104–105, 107, 116
Mathers, M. 126
Maynard, Melanie 52
McCormack, M. 171
McDevitt, J. 1
McManaman, Steve 62
McNally, David 166
Media Cultured xi, 64, 65–66
media industry 76
mediatised activism 53
medicalization (of trans bodies) 145, 147, 148–149, 150, 154
Méïté, Yakou 87
mens rea principle 33
Merton, R.K. 51
Messner, M.A. 106
Mexico 108
microaggressions 128
Middlesbrough Football Club 59–60, 65, 188
Mido (Ahmed Hossam Hussein Abdelhamid Wasfy) 188
Migration Museum 74
Miles, B. 53
Mills, K. 47, 48, 51
Millwall 7
Milton Keynes Dons 29
Mings, Tyrone 11, 87
minority players 6, 10–11
See also specific groups (e.g., Black athletes, Jews, gay men)
minority supporters 10–11
misandry 132
Misogynies (Smith) 132–133
misogynoir 3, 125, 126, 133–134, 136, 137
misogyny
as hate crime 125, 126, 131, 132–134, 137
social acceptance of 97–98
MKS Cracovia (Poland) 35n3
MLS See Major League Soccer (MLS)
Mølby, Jan 62
The Month of Hate (CST) 23
#MoreThanMean 85
motivations (for hate crimes) 1
MTK Budapest (Hungary) 35n3
multiculturalism 6, 10, 12–13
mural (of Marcus Rashford) 12, 48–51, 52–55
Murray, Zander 104
Muslims 21, 23, 62, 98, 163, 183, 191

N

Nabano Martins, J. 110
Napolitano, V. 52, 53–54
National Front 7, 26
National Health Service (NHS) 147
national identity 5, 6, 8–10, 11, 12, 15
National LGB&T Partnership (2016) 146
National LGBT Survey 162, 163, 173
National Police Chiefs’ Council (NPCC) 185, 192, 194, 195
national team See England national team
Nazi salutes 26, 28–29, 31, 35
Netherlands 108
networking 170
Neville, Phil 93, 94
Newcastle United Football Club 73, 173
new racisms 9–10
See also racism
9/11 64, 183, 188
non-performing inclusion 113, 128, 134, 135, 137
Norwich City 161–162, 164, 166, 168, 173, 177n5, 192
NPCC See National Police Chiefs’ Council (NPCC)

O

‘Olé (we are England ’21)’ (Krept & Konan) 12–13
Olusoga, David 53
Olusoga, Peter 53
O’Neill, R. 111
online See hate crimes; social media; specific hate crimes (e.g., antisemitism, homophobia, racism)
Online Safety Bill 30, 92, 98
Opening Doors and Joining In (The FA) 113
out-groups 1, 2
Owens, Jesse 185
Oxford English Dictionary 32–33

P

Paddy Power 173
Paouros (Proud Lilywhites) 166, 167, 170, 173, 177
Parpworth, N. 182
Patel, Priti 48, 73, 74, 126
patriarchy 107, 127
Pearce, Stuart 51–52
Perry, B. 152
PFA See Professional Footballers’ Association (PFA)
Platt, David 63
players
diversity, lack of 75–76
opposition to racism/xenophobia 11, 16
See also Black athletes ; British Asian players ; gay men ; Jews ; Liverpool players ; minority players ; South Asian players ; White players
Police, Crime, Sentencing and Courts Act (2022) 193, 194
police, role in hate crimes 184–185, 186–187, 190, 191, 195
policy influencing 167, 169–170
Policy on Trans People in Football (The FA) 149–151
popular culture 9
postcolonialism 13, 52, 55
Pound, Simone 93
poverty
food poverty campaign 49–50, 53, 54, 55
and participation in sports 147
Powar, Piara 77
prejudice 1, 45, 46–47
Premier League
antisemitism definition adoption 22, 35
Equality Diversity and Inclusion Standard 165
on homophobia 165, 170, 172–173
Jewish players 19
Kick It Out funding 90
non-playing positions, lack of diversity in 72–73
online hate, tackling 96
role in addressing racism/discrimination 97
social media boycott 93
taking the knee 11
See also specific clubs (e.g., Tottenham Hotspur)
Price, J. 90, 92, 93, 96
Pride in Football 162, 165, 169, 173
Professional Footballers’ Association (PFA) 87, 90, 93, 111, 113
Pronger, B. 106
prosecutors, role in hate crimes 184–188
Proud Canaries 161–162, 164, 166, 173
Proud Lilywhites 164
Public Order Act (1986) 29, 31, 33, 130, 182, 183, 187, 193

Q

Qatar 15, 61, 160, 164, 172

R

race
experiences of within football cultures 8–9
hate crime based on 1, 193
national identity, role in shaping 5, 6, 8–9, 11, 12, 15
race making 7, 8–9
Race Relations Act (1976) 185
Racial and Religious Hatred Act (2006) 130
racialization
process of 7–8, 9, 15, 28
of religious minorities 21
racial microaggressions 128
racial terminologies 137n1
racism
chanting 7, 10, 79, 84, 87, 131, 185, 188, 190–191
closet 44–45
evolution of 9–10
forms of 28–29
history of in football 5–6, 7, 8–9, 26
institutional 129
Italy 76–79
local variations of 14
online (cyber) 1–2, 5–6, 29, 74, 83–84, 90–96
research 84–86
sexism and (intersectionality of) 132–136
social acceptance of 97–98
United States 75–76
vandalism motivated by 45–47, 48–52, 55
See also antiracism
Racism in Sport (Culture, Media and Sport Committee) 160
Rafiq, Azeem 66
Rainbow Laces 111, 116, 165, 166, 167, 173
Rapid Vienna 28
Rapinoe, Megan 75
Rashford, Marcus
critical race theory and 52–54
food poverty campaign 49–50, 53, 54
and inclusivity myth 47–48, 51
mural of 12, 48–52
racist abuse faced by 6, 12, 16, 63, 74, 83–84
reparation for 54–55
taking the knee 53
Rashford, Robert 52
Ratcliffe, Sean 190–191
Ratna, Aarti 127–129, 134
RB Leipzig (Germany) 29
Redknapp, Jamie 62
referees
diversity, lack of in 73
hate crimes by 61, 72, 194
racist behaviour of supporters (fans) 70–71
Regis, Cyrille 45, 47–48, 63
Rennie, Uriah 73
Respect programme (UEFA) 164
Reyes, José Antonio 69
Roberts, Mark 96
Rogers, R v 183
Rowe, Michael 131
rugby 9, 15, 93, 145
Rugby League 145
Russia 69, 189
R v Rogers 183

S

Saka, Bukayo
and inclusivity myth 47–48, 51
racist abuse faced by 6, 12, 16, 63, 74, 83–84
reparation for 54
Sam, Michael 111
same-sex marriage 108–109
Sampson, Mark 133, 135
Sancho, Jadon
and inclusivity myth 47–48, 51
racist abuse faced by 6, 12, 16, 63, 74, 83–84
reparation for 54
Sanderson, Lianne 136
Santana, A.D. 95
Santo, Nuno Espírito 73
Saudi Arabia 173
#SayHerName campaign 127, 135
scale of prejudice (Allport) 45, 46–47
scoping reviews 84–85
Scott, Alex 87
sectarianism 28, 182, 185
Section 28 legislation 105
self-regulation 89, 94, 97
Semerjian, T. 150
Sentencing Act (2020) 130, 131, 183, 184
September 11 64, 183, 188
Serie A (Italy) 76–78
sex
assumptions about 143–144
gender and 147
sex-binary model 148
sexism
in antiracism campaigns 128
in football 124–125
racism and (intersectionality of) 132–136
sex-segregation 144, 146, 147–148, 153
sexual identity 132
sexual minorities
hate crimes/discrimination towards 103, 109, 112–114, 114, 115, 116
participation in sports 105, 106
sexual orientation hate crimes 1, 183, 193
Sheffield United 11
Show Racism the Red Card 66, 92
Signify 87, 111
Skinner, Frank 12
Sky 90, 92
Smalling, Chris 77
Smith, E.R.A.N. 108
Smith, J. 132–133
social groups 1, 2, 152
socializing 167, 170
social media
anonymity on 88, 93, 95, 97–98, 110
antisemitism 29–31, 32
backstage/frontstage behaviour 88–89, 97
boycotts 93–95, 134
companies, role in hate speech 2
Euro 2020 1–2, 5–6, 12, 74, 83–84, 87
FBOs for posts 95, 163
hate crimes investigations of 48, 91, 184, 192
HBT discrimination on 114, 114, 115
inclusivity 110–111
increase in hate posts 87–88
racist comments on 1–2, 5–6, 29, 74, 83–84, 90–96
research of hate on 84–86, 89–90
social regulation 89
Sol Campbell case 182
Solomos, John 72
Sostres, Salvador 80
South Asian players 62, 64
Southgate, Gareth 51, 73, 83, 94, 159
Spain 108
Spirit of Shankly 171
Sports Councils Equality Group 146
SportsMedia LGBT+ 176
Spurs See Tottenham Hotspur (Spurs) Football Club
Stein, Edwin 73
Sterling, Raheem 53, 95
Stewart, Rod 46
Stoke City 66
Stoke on Trent Magistrates’ Court, Director of Public Prosecutions v 187–188, 190, 191
Stonewall 165, 173, 176, 192
Stott, P. 113
strain theory (Merton) 51
Suárez, Luis 10
Suave, Myles 12
Suler, J. 88
supporters (fans)
Black and ethnic minority 10–12
criminal proceedings against 28–29, 30–31, 33
demographics of 160–161
homosexuality, attitudes toward 109, 110, 116
opposition to racism/xenophobia 12, 16
on race and identity 8
racism by, examples of 6, 7, 8–9, 10
representation 65
UEFA racism guidelines 70–71
White 10, 45, 46, 52
See also football cultures
Sweden 108, 109, 146
‘Sweet Caroline’ (Diamond) 12
Switzerland 108
Symons, C. 106
Szatan, Gabriel 12–13

T

Tackling Online Hate in Football 84, 96
Taiwan 108
taking the knee
Black players 53
England team commitment to 11
public response to 11, 48, 66, 73–74
women and girl footballers 126–127
Tanner Stage 2 145, 154n1
target vandalism 51
Tavernier, James 87
Taylor, Lord Justice 186
Taylor, Lyle 87
Taylor Report 186
Terry, John 5, 10
Thatcher, Margaret 105
Thomas, Gareth 112
Thorpe, H. 116
‘The Three Degrees’ 45, 48
‘Three lions’ (Baddiel, Skinner, and Lightning Seeds) 12
Three Lions Pride 164
Tobin, H. 150
Together (EFL) 165
Toney, Ivan 87
Tottenham Hotspur (Spurs) Football Club
antisemitism, as targets of 20, 28, 29, 30–31, 32, 184
Black manager of 73
education initiatives 33–34
trans men 146
trans people
about 144
hate crimes against 1, 109, 143, 152–153, 162
legislation 130, 143, 148–149, 183
medicalization of 145, 147, 148–149, 150, 154
participation in sports 145, 146–147, 149–151, 174
transphobia
discrimination/hate crimes 103, 112–114, 114, 115, 116, 144–145
legitimization of 148, 153
trans women 143–144, 146
TRUK United Football Club 146
Trump, Donald 54, 75
Turner, A. 191
Twenge, J.M. 106
Twitter
analysis of Euro 2020 hate speech 74, 88
anonymity of account owners 88, 95
posts, examples of 30, 31, 75, 78
research of hate on 85–86
See also social media
tyranny of gender 147–148

U

Ubhey, Baljit 33
UEFA (Union of European Football Associations)
on homophobia 164, 172
racism, addressing 69–71
social media boycott 93
See also Euro 1988 (Germany) ; Euro 2000 (Belgium) ; Euro 2016 (France) ; Euro 2020
UKFPU See United Kingdom Football Policing Unit (UKFPU)
Union of European Football Associations See UEFA (Union of European Football Associations)
United Kingdom Football Policing Unit (UKFPU)
football-related arrests 193
hate crime investigation team 159, 163, 185
online racism, addressing 90, 91, 95–96, 97
reports of racism to 48, 95
United with Pride 173
United States
homosexuality, attitudes towards 105–107, 108, 110
inclusivity in sports 109
racism in soccer 75–76, 80
trans participation in sports 146
US Soccer 75–76

V

vandalism 45–47, 48–52, 55
Vardy, Jamie 168
victims
experiences of 131–132
identity as hate crime motivator 1
of vandalism 45–46
Vieira, Patrick 73
violence
antisemitic 22, 24, 25
domestic 170, 176
gender-based 125, 126, 131, 132, 148
hate vandalism as 45, 54
Islamophobic 61
legislation 188, 189–190, 191, 193, 194
masculinization of 104–105, 109
at matches 2
online 2
racially motivated 129, 133
symbolic 150, 154
trans people 148, 150, 151, 152–153, 154
visibility 165, 166, 167–168

W

Waddle, Chris 51–52
Welch, R. 112
Welsh Premier League (Cymru Premier) 189
Wembley Stadium 46, 47, 51, 74, 83, 133
West Bromwich Albion 45
West Ham
antisemitism by fans 28, 31, 32
Islamophobia by fans 188
racism by fans 7
Wharton, Arthur 185
Whelan, Noel 168
White (Gay Gooners/Three Lions Pride) 167, 169, 170, 173, 174
Whiteness 74, 124, 127–128, 133–134, 135–136
White players 51–52
White privilege 20, 73, 76
White supporters (fans) 10, 45, 46, 52
WhY Word: Time To Think About It 34
Widzew Łódź (Poland) 26
Williams, H. 133
Withington 48–49, 54, 55
Withington Girls’ School 49
women
antidiscrimination campaigns, ineffectiveness of 128–129
exclusion from sports 105
intersectionality in hate crimes 131–134
marginalization of 126
misogynoir experiences 133–134, 135–136
misogyny experiences 132–133
racism experiences 125–126, 127–128, 134–136
Women’s Championship 93, 193
Women’s Super League 93, 193
Wood, Roisin 92
World Aquatics 145
World Cup 2022 (Qatar) 15
Wright, Ian 87

X

xenophobia 5–6, 7, 12, 14

Y

‘Yid’ 20, 31, 32–34, 184
‘You’ll Never Walk Alone’ 62, 171
Young, Jock 52
Younis, Waqar 64
The Y-Word (Kick It Out) 33, 34

Z

Zabir, Mohammed 61, 64, xi
Zaha, Wilfred 87