References to endnotes show both the page number and the note number (192n4).

A

abjection 4, 6, 8, 32, 67, 111
and hostile environment working group 200
social 99, 103
and stigmatization 58–59
and trauma 33
abuse 3, 130, 131, 139–140, 176, 183
abusive speech 118, 183, 185
active 143–144
and disablism 130, 142–143, 153, 228
domestic 40, 48, 49, 218
economic 129
gender-based 123
group 145–147
impact of 147
interpersonal violence and abuse (IPA) 78, 83, 84
NHS guidelines on 181–182
online 5
passive 142–143
of people with learning disabilities and autism 129
physical 84
power abuse in the church 187
in public transports 142–143, 153
racist 1, 2, 84, 201–202, 205, 207, 209, 239
sexual 48, 81, 84, 86, 92, 187
verbal 9, 16, 84, 123, 243
affective economy 7–8, 10, 98–99, 111
see also hyper-visible bodies
Ahmed, S. 7–8
Akiko, S. 100
Alhaboby, Z.A. 130
‘All Wales Hate Crime Research Project’ 220
Alldred, P. 100
Allen, C. 102–103
All-Party Parliamentary Group on Domestic Violence 49
ambivalent atmospheres, of (un)safety 85–87
ambivalent landscapes, everyday negotiations of 87–89
Anderson, K. 243–244
anti-Muslim hatred 200, 229, 241
anti-Muslim racism 102–104, 105
anti-racist education 198, 209
anti-racist youth work 197, 198, 210
Anzaldúa, G. 192
ARCH (Agencies against Race Crime and Harassment) reporting database 222
Aspen Woolf Ltd. 71, 72
aspirational culture 204
atmospheres 13, 15, 80, 84, 229
ambivalent 85–88, 91
encounter 80–83
urban 80–83, 86–93
views on 89
austerity 5, 199–200, 210, 233
and disablism 4, 99, 108
and structural violence 125
Australia 45, 46

B

Bachmann, C.L. 105
Bahr Islamic Academy, attacks on 104
Baker, J. 103
Balderston, S. 126, 130
Bates, E. 13, 82, 90, 128, 228
Batsleer, J. 210
Benjamin, W. 89
bias incidents 158, 162, 164–165, 167, 171
bias-motivated behaviours 22, 24
Bille, M. 83, 89
BIPOC students 166, 168
Black and Global Majority (BGM) people 196, 198, 199, 200, 201, 203, 205, 209–210, 211
Black women, employment of 241–242
Blackwood, L. 240
Blair, T. 70
Böhme, G. 82
Booth, C. 64
Bregazzi, H. 111
Brexit 4–5, 198, 199, 223
Brooks Gardner, C. 127
Browne, K. 122, 124, 229
Burch, L. 130
Burgess, J. 61
Burris, C.T. 58, 74
Butler, A. 59
bystander non-intervention 48, 139, 150–151, 152, 218

C

Callaghan, J. 60
Campbell, E. 240, 244
Canada
hate crime legislation 176
heteroactivism in 178, 180–181, 183
sexual and gendered rights 188
Ceccato, V. 140
Centre for Women’s Justice 42
Chakraborti, N. 125, 130, 221, 230, 241
Chana, S. 229–230
Chomsky, N. 69
Christian Concern 180, 181–182, 183, 185, 186, 190, 192n4
Christianity, and heteroactivism 179, 181
cities see urban landscapes
civil society organizations 5, 219–220
civility 81
classroom, racism in 159, 162, 163, 167, 171
Clayton, J. 15, 220, 222, 229
College of Policing (CoP) 17n1, 142
colleges, and safe spaces 157, 159, 160–161, 162, 164, 166–169, 171
Colliver, B. 111
Community Development Programme (CDP) 60
community initiatives 229, 230
Community Safety Partnerships (CSPs) 226–227
contexts, and hate 206, 209–210, 211
continuum model 12, 221, 240
and marginalization 111
of sexual violence 39, 47, 48
violence against disabled people 119, 120–124, 128, 129–130, 131
violence against women 3
contours of hate 22–24
abjection 32, 33
bias-motivated behaviours 22, 24
critical studies 24–26
esteem 30–32
and Gypsies and Travellers 27, 29–33
and Irish Travellers 29
legitimacy, hierarchies of 30–31
neoliberalism 22–23, 24–26, 31
psychological harm 33
recognition theory 28–34
and Scottish Travellers 29
solidarity 30, 31, 32
spaces and places of hate harms 27–34
study methodology 26–27
and transgenders 27, 29–30, 30, 33
Copeland, D. 9, 107
Cramer, R. 223
Creasy, S. 48
Crenshaw, K. 241
criminal justice framing 2, 4, 5, 8–10, 197, 242, 245
for disability violence 119, 129
for misogyny hate crime 41–42, 44–45, 48–51, 79
and responses to hate 217–221, 226, 227, 231, 232
criminalization 24, 45, 51, 177
of hate speech 185–187, 191
resisting hate crime with anger 127
critical race theory 28, 203
critiquing, of hate 6–8
culture wars 3, 4, 184, 198, 210
Currie, G. 140, 141

D

Darling, J. 196
Datta, A. 82
Davis, E. 230–231
defensive mindset 204
dehumanization 149
Delbosc, A. 140, 141
desensitization 196
Dickens, C. 64
disability 222–223
Disability Discrimination Act (1995) 9
disabled people
abuse of 130, 142–143, 153, 228
learning disabled women 126
safe spaces for 228–229
and UK public transport 148–150
victimization of 108–110
and visibility 108–109, 123, 125, 126
disablism
and austerity 4, 99, 108
casual 118
disablist violence 13, 112n7
blurred spaces of disablist hostility and 128–131
continuum of 120–124
and hostility 118–120, 122–131
safety work and 124–128
and street harassment 124–125, 126–127, 131
study of 119–120
Djohari, N. 158
Doherty, G. 129
Donovan, C. 220, 223
Duggan, M. 82
Dundee Community Safety Partnership 226

E

Edensor, T. 89
Edwards, A. 227
emotions 3, 6, 11, 13, 16, 32, 243–245
definition of 101–102
love 13, 16, 28, 32–34, 178, 179, 180, 181, 182, 187–191, 239, 240, 243
risk, in universities 158, 159, 160, 163
and urban spaces 80, 81, 82–83, 89, 91
and violence 47
End Violence Against Women Coalition 42
Engels, F. 64
England and Wales
ARCH reporting database 222
Crime Survey for England and Wales 51, 219
Crown Prosecution Service 78
feminist campaigning against rape persecution 42
racial diversity and racial inequalities, increase in 199–200
esteem 13, 28, 30–32, 33–34, 244
eugenics 197
events 232, 240, 241, 243
Everard, S. 10
everyday conflicts 222
everyday hate 4
everyday hostility 4, 14, 81, 82, 140
everyday intolerance 12
everyday negotiations 80, 84–89, 90, 91, 93
exploitative familiarity 129
Express, The 62, 69

F

far-right groups and extremists 3, 12, 103, 104, 199, 200, 220, 241
Fawcett Society 41, 48
feelings, and hate crimes 183–184
Felson, M. 140
female students 78–80
encounter, atmosphere, and urban landscapes 80–83
everyday negotiations of 84–89
geographies of, researching 83–84
and landscapes of (un)safety and neoliberal urbanism 89–91
feminism 45, 49
anti-violence campaigns 49, 50, 52n1
Black 242
and campaigns on street harassment 131–132
and gender-based crimes 40
and misogyny hate crime 41, 48, 51, 52n1
and rape prosecution 42
feminist activism 38–39
feminist geography 38, 81–82
feminist geopolitics 101
Fileborn, B. 46
Financial Times 62
Finlay, R. 200
Fischer, A. 58
Flint, C. 12
Fox, N.J. 100
free speech 179, 182, 183, 184–185, 191, 240
friction 222
Fung, A. 229
Fyson, R. 129

G

Galtung, J. 131
Gandy, M. 83
Garland, J. 241
gender
abuse based on 123
crimes based on 39–40
genderscapes of hate 82
identity 3, 176, 181, 182–183, 185–186, 191
rights 176, 188
and speaking back 205–208
see also female students ; misogyny hate crime
gentrification 69–71, 73–74
see also stigmatization ; Toxteth (Liverpool) ; urban landscapes
Göle, N. 103
Gooch, B. 105
graffiti, racist 104
Granby 4 Streets Community Land Trust (CLT) 71–72, 72, 74
group abuse 145–147
Guardian 61–62, 64, 70, 74n3
Guasp, A. 106
Gyamerah, A.O. 229
Gypsies and Travellers
and esteem 31–32
harmful subjectivity for 33
and respect 29, 30
study of 27

H

Hall, E. 228
Halsall, M. 69
Hardwick, F. 9, 224, 226
Hardy, S. 125
Haslam, N. 6
Hastings, M. 62
hate crimes 2–5, 14, 78–79, 100, 121, 129, 131, 165
agenda, for Gypsies and Travellers 30
anti-Muslim hate crime 229
conceptualization in policy 218
criminal justice and legal dimensions of 8–10
under Criminal Justice System 197
and feelings 183–184
and gender 39–40
government policy on 218–219
hyper-visibility and 108–109
legislations 8, 10, 176, 182, 183, 185
meaning of 17n1
and public health 16, 223–224, 232
race-related 219
reporting of 218–219
resisting with anger, criminalization of 127
sexual and gendered rights 176
socio-ecological model of 16, 217–218, 221–225, 227, 230, 231
and transgender identity 3, 9, 39, 50, 106–107, 106–107, 111, 219
under-reporting of 219
in universities 158
see also disablist violence ; misogyny hate crime ; UK public transport ; universities
hate incidences, patterning to 222–223
Hate Incident Multi-Agency Panel (HIMAP) 226–227
hate incidents 9–10, 17n1, 186, 220, 222, 230, 231, 243
as everyday occurrences 26
hate crime provisions 43
homophobic 106
and hyper-visibility 108, 109
involving disabled people 122, 142, 152, 222, 223
and race 108
recording by police 218, 226
reporting of 79, 106, 176, 218–219, 220, 226, 227, 228
and UK public transport 142, 152
hate relationships 44, 99, 109–110, 111, 221, 225
hate speech
disablist 130
as everyday occurrences 26
legislation 4, 176, 178, 182, 183, 185–187, 190–191
as a political divisive tool 32
hated landscapes 11–14, 58–60
see also inner city ; Thatcher, M. ; Toxteth (Liverpool)
hate-motivated behaviour 224
Healy, J.C. 228, 229
Henry-Westen, John 188
Herman, E.S. 69
Heseltine, M. 60, 63–68
heteroactivism 177–178
and abusive/threatening speech 183, 185
Christian Concern 180, 181–182, 183, 185, 186, 190, 192n4
in contemporary sexual landscapes 178–180
hate perception 182–185
on hate speech legislation 185–187, 190–191
Lumen Fidei Institute 180–181, 187, 189
and public opinion 185
and reclaiming hate as love 187–191
sexual and gendered hate 176, 188
Hill Collins, P. 126
Hmong students 6, 160–161
familial obligations 166
off-campus housing 166–167
and violence in residence halls 163–164, 170, 171
see also Robin State University
Hollomotz, A. 3, 123
homophobias 106–107, 177, 179
Hopkins, P. 102, 105
Hoskyns, J. 66–67, 68
hostility 2, 5, 9–10, 12–16, 58–59, 89, 104, 159
and civility 81
criminal behaviour motivation by 17n1, 39, 41, 46–47, 78
and disablist violence 118–120, 122–131
everyday 4, 14, 81, 82, 140
hostile environment working group 200
in institutions 163, 167
outgroup 58
racial 157, 158, 197, 199, 211n2
and safety work 125–126
UK public transport and 142, 144–145, 152–153
housing market failure 70
Housing Market Renewal (HMR) Pathfinders scheme (2002) 70–71
Howe, G. 66, 67–68
Hughes, G. 227
hyper-visible bodies 98–99
locating, through scene 105–107
materialization of hate landscapes and 102
mosques and 102–105
neighbourhood proximities and 108–110
production of 99–100

I

identity 10, 13, 22, 48, 99, 100, 102, 165, 199, 240, 241
of disabled people 108–109, 121, 138
gender 3, 176, 181, 182–183, 185–186, 191
group 220, 222–223
of Gypsies and Travellers 29–30, 31
and harm 27
hierarchies of 31
personal and social 22, 25, 32, 33
and social structure 23
stigmatization of 108
transgender 3, 9, 39, 50, 106–107, 111, 219
in virtual space 166
Iganski, P. 12, 140, 149, 221–222
Independent Police Complaints Commission (IPCC) 225
inner city
Heseltine on 65
policy positioning of problem of 60–61
and symbolic meaning 61
and Thatcher 65–66
and Toxteth 61–64
see also urban landscapes
innocent citizen, impact of hate speech legislation on 178, 184, 185, 186, 190, 191
interpersonal violence and abuse (IVA) 78, 83, 84
intersectionality 3, 10, 14, 16, 241–242, 244–245
critical hate studies and 23, 28, 30
of learning disabled women 126
misogyny hate crime and 47–49, 51
intimate partner violence 130, 224
invisibility 13, 99, 103, 108–109, 125
see also hyper-visible bodies ; visibility
invisibilization, of individual safety work 125
Ireland 4–5
heteroactivism in 16, 176, 177, 178, 180–181, 182, 183
sexual and gendered rights 188
Irish Travellers 29
Islam, visibilization of 103–104
Islamophobia 101, 102, 199, 200, 241
It Took a Riot (Heseltine) 68–69

J

Jackson, M. 111
Jackson, P. 101
Jeffs, M. 38, 49
Johansen, B.S. 101
Johnson, B. 1
Joseph, K. 66
Joyce, N.P. 228

K

Kattari, S.K. 118
Keating, A.L. 192
Keep Safe sites 219, 228
Kelly, L. 3, 87, 123, 124, 125, 127, 128, 130
King, T. 69
Kiska, R. 182–185
Kitson, D. 129
Kobayashi, A. 203
Koskela, H. 82

L

Lacan, J. 25
Lacken, J. 187, 188, 189
Lancaster, S. 9
Laverick, W. 228
Lawrence, S. 8–9, 39, 218
learning disabled people see disablist violence
Lefebvre, H. 85
legislations 231
Anti-Terrorism, Crime and Security Act (2001) 9
communicative power of law 49
Coroners and Justice Act (2009) 183
Crime and Disorder Act (1998) 9, 39
Criminal Justice Act (2003) 9
Hate Crime and Public Order (Scotland) Act (2021) 10
Hate Crime Statistics Act (1990) 8
Human Rights Act (1998) 9
Legal Aid, Sentencing and Immigration Act (2012) 9
Local Government Act (1988) 184
Race Relations Act (1965) 9
Street Harassment Prevention Act (2018) 51
symbolic power of law 49
see also hate speech
legitimacy, hierarchies of 30–31
Leicester Hate Crime Project 106, 119
LGBT people 106–107, 176, 188–189
LGBTI people 177
love 13, 178, 179, 180, 181, 182, 239, 240, 243
faith-inspired 16
and harm 32–34
reclaiming hate as 187–191
and space 28
Lumen Fidei Institute and its conference 180–181, 187, 189

M

Macdonald, S.J. 242
Macpherson Inquiry report 9, 219
Manchester’s Gay Village 107
Martin, J. 187, 188
masculinity 47, 201, 202, 206
Mason-Bish, H. 82
mate crime 129, 130, 221
materialization, of hate landscapes 100–102
McCarthy, M. 130
mechanic materiality 101
Mellgren, C. 100
Merseyside (Liverpool) 66–67, 68
Merseyside Development Corporation (MDC) 69
microaggressions 24, 26, 153, 201
as abuse 142–143
disablist 118, 123, 130
racial 161–164, 167, 196, 197, 201, 202, 203, 209, 210, 211, 211n1, 242
at universities 161–164
micropublics 167–168
Miles, S. 90
Milligan, C. 12
Mings, T. 1
Minton, A. 69
Mirror 62, 64, 74n3
misanthropy 81, 82, 89
misogyny hate crime 10, 14, 15, 25, 38–39, 51n2, 79–80, 89, 91, 92, 107, 238, 241
changing attitudes and violence prevention and 49–50
criminal justice framing 41–42, 44–45, 48–51, 79
and gender, in current context 39–40
motivation and root causes of VAWG and 46–47
protection to women and 41–42
responding to widespread support from victim–survivors and 44–46
VAWG non-criminal forms and 42–44
women’s experiences and positions and 47–49
Mitchell, D. 11, 13
Moseley, C. 186
mosques, inscribing and resisting hate through 102–105
Murphy, A. 187
Murphy, S. 6

N

Nayak, A. 102, 104
Neaty, P. 49
neighbourhood proximities, and hyper-visibility 108–110
neoliberalism 15, 199
and capitalism 22–26, 31
urbanism and unsafety landscapes 89–91
new materialism 100, 101
New Travellers 29, 32, 33, 34n1
Newcastle-upon-Tyne 104, 106
Newton, A. 140
Nottingham Citizens 40
Nottingham Women’s Centre 38, 40, 48
Nottinghamshire Police as Misogyny Hate Crime 42, 43, 52n2

O

otherness 61, 100, 102, 146
Our Streets Now 52n4

P

Pain, R.H. 126
passive abuse 142–143
patriarchy 38, 123, 241
see also misogyny hate crime
Payne, J. 130
Peake, L. 203
Peck, J. 90
pedestrian speech acts, notion of 88–89
perceived vulnerability 219
Perry, B. 8
physical sexual abuse 84
Pilkington, F. 9, 224–225, 226
Pink Triangle 106, 107
Placefirst 71, 72
Poirier, M.R. 222
Police Scotland 218–219
policing 218, 225, 231, 240
Pooley, A. 71
postindustrial cities 81, 82, 89
predominately white institutions (PWIs)
conceptualization of safe spaces at 167–171
infrastructure 163
race, space and violence at PWIs 162–167
racial diversity in 157–158
see also Robin State University
Pride
cancellation of 182, 190–191
significance of 107, 111
proactive speaking back 205, 206–208
psychological harm 33
psycho-social approach, to subjectivity 23
public health
and hate crimes 16, 223–224, 232
socio- ecological model 218, 230
VAWG 51
public opinion 45, 185
public shaming 150, 185

Q

Quarmby, K. 118

R

race
materialities of 101
-related hate crimes 219
racism
discrimination of Hmong students 161
microaggressions 163, 196, 197, 209, 211, 211n1
racial slurs 158, 164
racist graffiti 104
systemic and structural 198, 199
see also Robin State University ; universities ; white supremacy ; whiteness
Ralph, S. 149
Ranganathan, M. 224
Rashford, M. 1
reactive speaking back 205–206
recognition theory 28
esteem and 30–32
love and 32–34
respect and 28–30
reduced capable guardianship 149–150
relationality 16, 82, 242–243, 244–245
religion 3, 10, 39, 50, 179, 182–183, 242
religious persecution, Hmong students 161
and sexual and gendered hate 179
Rempel, J.K. 58, 74
respect 13, 28–30, 32, 33–34, 219, 244
responses to hate 231–232
criminal justice framing 217–221, 226, 227, 231, 232
critiquing 218–221
rethinking 226–231
spatialization of hate 221–226
see also universities
restorative justice 24, 231
‘Reviving the Inner Cities’ (Heseltine) 65
Reynald, D. 149, 151
Ritch, E. 38
Roberts, N. 124
Robin State University
conceptualization of safe spaces at 167–171
hate and virtual space, relationship between 166
Hmong Student Center 167, 170, 171
impact of budget cuts 169
infrastructure 163
low to middle income (LMI) college students at 160
micropublics perception 167–168
Office of Multicultural Affairs/Robin Ready Lounge 167, 168–169, 170, 171
racial diversity at 166
racial microaggressions at 163
reporting, responses to 163, 164–165
residence halls, violence in 163–164, 166
Robin Ready programme 157–158, 162, 168, 169
Romany Gypsies 29, 31
routine activity theory 140, 149, 223

S

safe environment 190
safe spaces 6, 16, 87, 99, 110, 120, 126, 158–159
conceptualization of 167–171
construction of 161–162
for disabled persons 228–229
and freedom 170
researching 160–162
significance of 169
speaking back and seeing beyond 211
safety work 87, 124–128
fear of victimization and 125, 126
financial implications of 125
hostility and 125–126
invisibilization of 125
Saka, B. 1, 2
Sancho, J. 1
scalar governance 62
Schweppe, J. 219–220
Scotland
Hate Crime Bill in 2020 182, 183, 185
Police Scotland 218–219
Third Party Reporting Centres 220
Scottish Travellers 29
secularism, and heteroactivism 179, 191
seeing beyond 196, 197–198, 199, 204, 208–209, 210, 211
Sennett, R. 81
sensitivity 238, 241–242
sexual abuse 48, 81, 84, 86, 92, 187
sexual hate/violence 81, 84, 90, 92, 123, 126, 130, 176, 188, 219
continuum model of 39, 47, 48
and religion 179
verbal sexual harassment 84
sexual landscapes, and heteroactivism 176, 178–180, 188
sexual orientation 176
sexual rights 176, 188
sexualized violence 38, 123, 241
Sharp, J. 101
Sheleff, L. 151
shithole, notion of 59
Silvestri, M. 111
Simmel, G. 81, 89
Sin, C.H. 130
sink estate, notion of 59
situated vulnerability 98, 105, 109, 112
Smith, S.J. 243–244
social abjection 99
social death 34
social harm approach 13, 23, 185
social materiality 98, 101, 102–103, 111
social media 166
disablist abuse on 130–131
Hmong community at RSU 164–165
racist abuse on 1, 2, 166
Robin State University’s campaign 165
socio-ecological model, of hate crime 16, 217–218, 221–225, 227, 230, 231
solidarity 13, 28, 30, 31, 32
Song, M. 210
Southgate, G. 1
space for action 127, 130
spatial hierarchization 67
spatialization of hate 221–225, 238–241
speaking back 209–210, 211
gendered and contextual forms 205–208
lived experiences 200–204
proactive 205, 206–208
reactive 205–206
special liberty 32
Stanley, J. 141
stigmatization 11, 74n3, 75n4
and gentrification cycle 74
and hyper-visibility 102, 108, 109, 112
of identity 108
of landscapes 58–59
refusal to 6
of Toxteth (Liverpool) 15, 64, 69, 70, 71, 73
Stockton-on-Tees, attacks on 104
Stonewall UK 30
‘Stop Hate UK’ 219, 220
street harassment 16, 46, 49, 51
disablist violence and 124–125, 126–127, 131
women’s strategies in response to 127
structural violence 125, 131
students’ geographies, researching of 83–84
subjectivity
harmful 28, 33
neoliberal capitalism and 25, 26
Sumartojo, S. 89
Sunderland 106, 200, 210
Swanton, D. 101

T

Tell MAMA 103, 219, 220, 227
temporality and urban atmospheres 86–87
Thatcher, M. 60
and inner city 65–66
on Liverpool 66–68
Toxteth and urban agenda of 68–69
third party reporting (TPR) 106, 112n4, 152, 219
Third Party Reporting Centres 219–220, 228
threatening speech 118, 183, 185
Thrift, N. 81
Times 62
Toxteth (Liverpool)
connection to national hate landscape 62–64
as inner city 61–62
stigmatization of 15, 64, 69, 70, 71, 73
Thatcher government on 66, 68–69
unhating of 69–73
transgender people 9, 10, 27, 30, 111–112
harmful subjectivity for 33
identity, and hate crime 3, 9, 39, 50, 106–107, 111, 219
respect for 29–30
transphobic hate 7, 107, 229
triggers events 103, 221, 223
‘True Vision’ 219
Tyler, I. 8, 99

U

UK public transport 138–139
bystander non-intervention in 150–151
crime on 140–141
disability hate crime on 139–140
future considerations for 151–153
and group abuse 145–147
hate crime experiences on 142–145
hate crime researching methods on 141–142
reasons to target disabled people on 148–150
victim, impacts on 147–148
United Kingdom
addressing community safety 226
airport security and minorities in 240
anti-Muslim hate crime in 229
anti-racist policy, lack of 199
Brexit 199
British Transport Police (BTP) 139
Christian heteroactivists in 179
Community Safety Partnerships (CSPs) 226–227
conceptualization of hate crime in policy 218
Conservative government 223
Criminal Justice System, hate crimes under 197
government policy, and hate crime 218–219
hate crime legislation 176
Home Office ‘hostile environment working group’ 200
Islamophobia 200
lack of governmental support for anti-racist education 209
Law Commission 17n2, 40, 47, 52n3
legislations 9, 10, 39, 183, 184
LGBT communities in 229
multi-agency approach 227
neoliberal governance 199
racism, lived experiences 200–204
racism in 196
reporting of hate crimes, increase in 218–219
safe spaces for disabled persons 228–229
Sewell Report 7
sexual and gendered rights 188
systemic and structural racism in 198, 199
‘Third Party Reporting’ 219–220
under-reporting of hate crimes in 219
United States
Christian Right anti-gay activism 179
Hate Crime Statistics Act (1990) 8
Street Harassment Prevention Act (2018) 51
transphobic hate in 229
universities
bias incidents 158, 162, 164–165, 167, 171
campus racism, responses to 162
lack of infrastructure 162
racial diversity in 157–158
relationship between hate and virtual space 166
reporting, responses to 163, 164–165
safe space programmes 168, 171
see also Robin State University
University of Connecticut 168
Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization 161
Urban Development Corporations (UDCs) 62
urban landscapes
atmosphere and 82–83
city centres 90–91
contemporary 90
and feminist geography 81–82
as sites of encounters 80–81
see also Toxteth (Liverpool)

V

Vaes, J. 149
Valentine, G. 125
van Dijk, T. 61
Vera-Gray, F. 87, 124, 125, 127, 128, 129, 130
verbal sexual harassment 84
victimization
critical hate studies 22, 23, 25
of disabled people 108–110
fear of 125, 126
invisible nature of 108
offline 130
online 130–131
significance of 4, 6, 10, 14, 15, 46, 82, 107, 118, 127
and UK public transport 128, 140, 142, 149, 152
violence against women and girls (VAWG) 39, 41, 48, 50
forms of 42, 46, 47
measurement of non-criminal forms of 42–44
motivation and root causes of 46–47
virtual space and hate, relationship between 166
Virueda, M. 130
visibility 50, 68, 98, 111–112
and ambivalence 99
and collectivism 107
and disabled people 108–109, 123, 125, 126
and Islam 103–105
and otherness 107
and protection 41
as socio-political phenomenon 99
and women’s movement 124
see also hyper-visible bodies ; vulnerability
vulnerability 81, 99, 101, 107, 108, 110–112, 127
empty spaces and 86
situated 105, 109, 112

W

Wacquant, L. 73–74
Walker, S. 169
Wallengren, S. 100
Walling-Wefelmeyer, R. 123, 127, 131
Walters, M. 231
Welsh Kale 29
Welsh Streets 71, 73
Western Washington University 165
white fragility 204, 211
white ignorance 211
white supremacy 197
conceptualization of 198–200
in university campus 163
see also Robin State University ; universities
whiteness 100, 196–197, 199, 211
and culture wars 210
defenders of 12
normativity of 211
Whorlton Hall Hospital 108
Wigmore, B. 64
Wiles, J. 12
Wilkin, D. 142
Wilson, F.H. 196
Wilson, H. 60, 138
Winlow, S. 32, 210–211
Winterbourne View Hospital 108
Wirth, L. 81
Witten, T.M. 224
Women and Equalities Committee 51
Women and Equalities Select Committee 40
Wong, K. 220
World Health Organization (WHO) 51
World Meeting of Families (WMoF) 180, 187, 188

Y

Yar, M. 28, 34
YAV 203–204
Yik-Yak 164, 166
Yosso, T.J. 204
YouGov poll 45

Z

Zouggari, N. 101