Page numbers in italic type refer to figures and graphs; those in bold refer to tables.

A

Action Plan on Wildlife Trafficking (WAP) 108, 109, 110, 111, 113, 115, 120, 121
African grey parrots 7, 41, 44
African spurred tortoises 55, 58–59
Agreement on International Humane Trapping Standards (AIHTS) 189
animal–human relations 186, 195–196
see also anthropocentric relationship between humans, other animals and nature
animal–human transformations 188–189
Animal Protection Act 1997 (Poland) 92, 94
animal rights 186, 196–197, 206–207
lack of an international convention for 3, 105
NGOs, CITES and discussion of 153–154
animal welfare 49, 153–154, 206–207
CITES’ addressing of 105, 107, 206
experimentation on animals 187–188
hunts and suffering of animals 4, 24, 26, 29–30
and lifting of reptile ban in Norway 44–46, 49
references in WAP 108, 120
rescue centres for trafficked animals 114–115, 119–120
suffering of poached birds 73–74
Animal Welfare Act 1977 (Norway) 21, 41, 157
animals, intrinsic value of 1–2, 4, 6, 210, 211
Bern Convention on 8, 206
CITES on 44
Anthropocene 5, 168, 192
anthropocentric relationship between humans, other animals and nature 13–14, 185–204, 210–211
CITES and commodification of life 190–193
conclusions and future directions 193–197
experimenting on animals 187–188
philosophical framework 186
relationships through history 188–190
anthropocentrism 3, 195
of Bern Convention 8, 206, 211–212
of CITES 37, 108, 206, 211–212
of Habitats Directive 132
regarding welfare of wolves 94, 101
anthropology beyond the human 186
Anubis 188
anxiety and guilt, apocalyptic 192, 193
Arabidopsis thaliana 194
Attenborough, D. 168
awareness, raising
to act as a crime deterrent 64, 96–97
of animal trafficking 43, 49
information campaigns 114–115
of wildlife protection 137, 212

B

Baden-Württemberg 134
badgers 172, 180, 206
Balkan lynx 172
barbary macaques 119
BArtSchV (Federal Ordinance on the Conservation of Species) 131, 139
bears, brown 17, 21
illegal theriocides 23
in defence 24, 25–26
management through lethal control 21–22, 30
protection of reproductively ‘valuable’ females 28
wounding and suffering of hunted 24, 29
see also hunting of wolves and bears in Norway
beavers 179
behavioural change, wildlife treaties and 159–162, 163
Behnke, N. 126, 128
Bennett, C. 168
Bern Convention 4–5, 8–10, 154
anthropocentric perspective 8, 206, 211–212
appendices 8, 21, 22, 91, 154, 172
commitments and prohibitions 8–9
complaints re compliance with 9
decision-making monopoly 155
as econocentric 155
EU directives to implement 4, 9–10, 132
in Germany 131–132, 133
goals of 131–132, 154, 205
latent as opposed to stated goals 155
in Italy 78
lynx, support for rewilding of 179–180
members 3
in Norway 5, 21, 158, 159
in Poland 91
prohibited methods of killing 172, 173
shortcomings 4, 197, 211, 212
similarities and differences with CITES and implications for effectiveness 154–156
BfN (Federal Agency for Nature Protection) 125, 126, 131, 133, 134, 136, 141
biodiversity
conservation 3, 143
CITES prioritizing of 105, 106–108, 111
Global Biodiversity Framework 107
in Italy 70
threats to, and loss of 18, 55, 70, 76, 168
in UK 168, 174
biophilia 11–12, 81
bird poaching in Italy 70–86, 208
bird species at risk of extinction 71
CITES-related/adjunct legislation 78–79
criminal charges 73
economic benefits 76
goldfinches and other Fringillidae 74–77
legal framework 77–79, 80–81
Law 150/1992 78–79
Law 157/1992 78
Law 503/1981 78
Legislative Decree 121/2011 77–78
links to organized crime 72, 75, 77
poaching typology 71–72
purposes of 72–73
recommendations for future policy 80–81
suffering of birds 73–74
birds
African grey parrots 7, 41, 44
Peruvian toucans 117–118, 120–121
of prey 119, 180
welfare of trafficked 119–120
Birds Directive, European Union 9, 132, 206
BKA (Federal Criminal Police Office) 126, 133, 136, 141, 142
BNatSchG (Federal Nature Conservation Act) 131, 132, 136, 138, 139, 141, 142, 143
bobcats 172
bow traps 73–74
Brisman, A. 5, 6, 18, 91, 155, 167, 169–170, 180, 186
bushmeat 119

C

Canadian lynx 172
care ethics 210–211
categorical imperative 190
CBD (Convention of Biological Diversity) 91, 107
chain of effectiveness of wildlife treaties, Norwegian 13, 151–167, 209–210
link 1, conventions 153–156, 163
link 2, domestic legislation 156–159, 163
Nature Diversity Act 156, 158–159
Regulation 1276 of 15 November 2002 157–158
link 3, behavioural change 159–162, 163
circuses, animals in 38, 154
CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora) 4–5, 7–8, 37–38, 153–154, 171–172
annual trade reports 7–8, 37
anthropocentric perspective 37, 108, 206, 211–212
appendices 7, 37, 38, 154, 172
amendment of Appendix I 41–42, 44
biodiversity conservation 105, 106–108, 111
commodification of life and 190–193
Conferences of the Parties (COPs) 7, 106, 107
decision-making monopoly 155
as econocentric 155
export and import permits 41, 42, 43, 112, 116, 117, 120, 172
electronic 117
in Germany 130–131, 132–134
goals of 153–154, 205
latent as opposed to stated goals 155
in Italy 78–79
lynx, support for rewilding of 179
in Poland 93–95
recommendations for a revision 212
seized live animals and revised recommendations 44, 114–115, 119–120
shortcomings 4, 37, 197, 211, 212
similarities and differences with Bern Convention and implications for effectiveness 154–156
Strategic Vision Statement 2021–30 105, 106, 107, 111, 120
tagging requirements 47–48, 48
CITES in Norway 11, 36–51, 207
awareness of crimes and potential punishments 43, 49
changes in implementation and wildlife trade regulation 41–42, 44
incorporation into domestic law 157–158, 159
lack of transparency in enforcement 42–43
lifting of reptile ban 38, 41, 43–46, 49
methodology 39
owner certificates 42, 46–47, 48, 49
risks of wildlife laundering 46–48, 49
statistics on crimes and ensuing penalties 42–43, 49
tagging requirements 47–48, 48
transnational reptile trade 39–41
CITES in Spain 12, 105–124, 209
control of legal trade 112
legislation 109–110, 111–113, 115
CITES authorities 109, 111–112, 120
grounds for acquittal on charges of illegal trading 115–116
law enforcement agencies 109, 112–113
public prosecutor’s office 113
methodology 109–111
Operation Quercus 112
permit systems 112, 116, 117, 120
practices for seized live animals 114–115, 119–120
SEPRONA 109, 110, 111, 112–113, 114, 118–119, 120
TIFIES Plan 113–119, 120
implement and enforce existing rules more effectively 115–117, 120
prevent illegal trafficking and international poaching of wildlife 114–115
strengthen global partnerships on wildlife trafficking and poaching 117–119
trafficking of native species 118–119
welfare of trafficked animals 114–115, 119–120
clinical trials 187–188
commodification of life 2–3, 14, 96, 190–193
Convention of Biological Diversity (CBD) 91, 107
Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora  see CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora) ; CITES in Norway ; CITES in Spain
Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats see  BERN Convention
cooperation, international
for return of trafficked animals 119
TIFIES Plan seeking to strengthen 117–119, 120–121
CRIMEANTHROP project 2–5, 106, 168–169, 205
criminal gangs
in eel trafficking 118–119
in illegal reptile trade 56, 57, 58–59, 60, 61–62, 63
in poaching in Italy 72, 75, 77
cultural poaching 72
cyclopia 188

D

Dasgupta Review 173
de-extinction 169–170, 180
decision-making monopolies 155
deer 174, 176–177
dualistic principle 156

E

ecological harms 5–6
ecological justice 6, 171
ecosystems 6
benefits of adding lynx back into 173, 174–175, 180, 181
de-extinction and disruption to 170
eel trafficking 118–119
empathy 6, 210–211
-based approaches for animal-related crimes 80
environmental justice 6, 171
environmental victimization 170
epibatidine 187
Eurasian lynx 172, 173
Eurogroup for Animals survey 98–100, 99
European Union (EU)
Action Plan on Wildlife Trafficking 108, 109, 110, 111, 113, 115, 120, 121
Birds Directive 9, 132, 206
Habitats Directive 4, 9, 10, 94, 132, 143, 179, 211
influential member of Bern Convention 10
reptile trade 39–40, 40–41, 52–53
facilitating illegal 63–64
Wildlife Trade Regulations 53, 63–64, 130–131
experiments with live animals 187–188
export and import permits 41, 42, 43, 112, 116, 117, 120, 172
electronic 117
extinction
birds in Italy at risk of 71
de-extinction 169–170, 180
of lynx in UK 173
numbers of species at risk of 41, 55, 168
of species from 1970 to 2016 151
extradition orders 117–118

F

Facebook 45, 54, 60–61, 63
Fajardo, T. 109, 110, 113, 114, 116, 117, 119
Federal Agency for Nature Protection (Bundesamt für Naturschutz, BfN) 125, 126, 131, 133, 134, 136, 141
Federal Criminal Police Office (Bundeskriminalamt, BKA) 126, 133, 136, 141, 142
Federal Nature Conservation Act (Bundesnaturschutzgesetz, BNatSchG) 131, 132, 136, 138, 139, 141, 142, 143
Federal Ordinance on the Conservation of Species (Bundesartenschutzverordnung, BArtSchV) 131, 139
Feehan, K. 176, 177, 178, 179, 180, 181
Food Safety Authority (FSA) 43, 44, 46, 49
Foucault, M. 195
fowling 72, 73–74
freedoms, five 3
frogs, ‘harvesting of’ 187
Fuentes, J. 109, 110, 113, 116, 117

G

genotypes 194
Germany  see wildlife protection in Germany
Global Biodiversity Framework (GBF) 107
goldfinches and other Fringillidae
artistic representations 74, 75
poaching 74–77, 76
Gosling, E. 100
Goyes, D. 8, 19, 21, 37, 89, 152, 153, 154, 155, 156, 160, 162, 187, 189, 190, 191, 192, 206
grass snakes 56
green criminology 5–7, 79, 169–171, 185, 186
green economy 193
Green Party, Germany 137, 142–143
Gruen, L. 6, 19, 210
Grundgesetz (German Constitution) 128, 131
guilt and anxiety, apocalyptic 192, 193

H

Habitats Directive, European Union 4, 9, 10, 94, 132, 143, 179, 211
Handke, P. 194
hard incorporation 157
hierarchical speciesism 44, 171
Higher Nature Protection Agencies (Obere Naturschutzbehörde, ONB) 134
human–animal relations 186, 195–196
see also anthropocentric relationship between humans, other animals and nature
human–animal transformations 188–189
hunting 2–3, 205–206
in Italy 78
suffering of animals 4, 24, 26, 29–30
traditional approaches to 189
in US 190
use of helicopters 22, 30
hunting and killing of wolves in Poland, illegal 12, 87–104, 208–209
anthropocentrism regarding welfare 94, 101
crime detection 101, 102
criminal convictions for crimes against animals 88
data collection 87
environmental NGOs involvement in court cases 97
financial value of a wolf 96
implementation of CITES and Bern Convention 93–95
jurisprudence in court cases 95–98, 101, 102
lack of awareness of consequences for 96–97, 101
legal status of wolves 89–93, 101, 102
Animal Protection Act 1997 92, 94
Hunting Law 1995 89, 92
Polish Penal Code 89, 92–93, 95, 96–97
methodology 88–89
permits for killing 94–95
property aspect 93, 94
social factors influencing toleration of 98–101, 99, 101–102
theriocides 2002–20 88
tools of poaching 88, 89, 92, 99
training in legal protection of wild animals 97–98
hunting of wolves and bears in Norway 10–11, 17–35, 206
comparison of legal and illegal theriocides 26–30
actors and means 26–27
protection of reproductively ‘valuable individuals’ 27–29
suffering of animals 29–30
‘huntable species’ 206
hunting quotas 21
illegal theriocides 23–26, 30
alleged accidental 26
organized hunts 23–24
poisoning 24, 29
suffering of animals 24, 26, 29–30
theriocides in defence 24–26
traps 24
large predator management 5, 18, 21–22, 30–31
methodology 20–21
prosecutions and convictions 20–21, 23–24, 26, 27
skadefelling applications 25, 28
‘species justifiability’ of legal hunts 30–31
theoretical perspective 18–19, 30–31
hybridization 56
hypothetical imperative 190

I

import and export permits 41, 42, 43, 112, 116, 117, 120, 172
electronic 117
information campaigns on wildlife trafficking 114–115
international cooperation
for return of trafficked animals 119
TIFIES Plan seeking to strengthen 117–119, 120–121
international environmental law 3, 153–156
see also Bern Convention ; CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora)
Italy  see bird poaching in Italy
ivory 117, 138

J

Janssen, J. 8, 53, 55, 56, 64
Jung, C. 194

K

Kant, I. 190
Kohn, E. 186
Kropp, S. 126, 128
Kuszlewicz, K. 93

L

Lavorgna, A. 43, 57, 60, 70, 71, 72, 75, 77, 78, 79
law enforcement 211
bird poaching in Italy 75–76, 77–79, 80
CITES authorities and law enforcement agencies in Spain 111–113
CITES implementation through TIFIES Plan in Spain 113–119, 120–121
confrontations between farmers and 190
consequences of lifting reptile ban in Norway 43–46, 49
illegal killing of wolves in Poland 95–98, 101, 102
lack of transparency in Norway 42–43
reptile trade in Netherlands 58–59, 59–61, 63–64
wolf and bear theriocides in Norway 26–30
see also wildlife protection in Germany
Leupen, B. T. C. 8, 53, 56, 64
Lie, M. S. B. 19, 29, 30
LIFE EuroLargeCarnivores project 100, 101
Liljeblad, J. 151, 152
lions 2–3, 119
Lipsky, M. 129
lobby groups in Germany 138, 140
Lovdata 20, 156
Lower Nature Protection Agencies (Untere Naturschutzbehörde, UNB) 134, 139, 140, 141
Lower Saxony 140
lynx 169
in Norway 176, 178
species of 172
lynx, rewilding in United Kingdom 13, 171–184, 210
benefits 180–181
drivers of extinction of Eurasian lynx 173
farmers’ compensation scheme 178
green criminology 169–171
harms 170, 180
legal framework 171–173, 173
legal practicalities 179–180
methods 175
opposition to 176–177
rejection of first application 177
rewilding and lynx 173–175
species justice 174–175, 181
support for 177–179
Lynx UK Trust 173, 174, 177, 178, 179, 180, 181

M

Maher, J. 45, 52, 110, 114, 119, 139, 209
markets, illegal wildlife 59, 74–75, 76
Marshall, B. M. 40, 53, 138
Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Norway 156, 158
myths 188–189, 192

N

narrative analysis 160
of behavioural change 160–162
narrative turn 159
Natali, L. 80, 186
National Farmers Union Scotland (NFUS) 176
Nature Conservation Act 2016 (Poland) 91, 94
Nature Diversity Act (NDA) 2009 (Norway) 19, 20, 27, 38, 49, 156, 158–159
nature management 4, 5–6
of large predators in Norway 5, 18, 21–22, 30–31
of wolves in Poland 94–95
nature symbolism 188–189
Netherlands see reptile trade in Netherlands
network analysis 54, 61–62, 62, 63
Nietzsche, F. 186
Norway
dualistic principle 156
‘huntable species’ 206
lifting of reptile ban and positive list 38, 41, 43–46, 49
lynx 176, 178
nature management of large predators 5, 18, 21–22, 30–31
parrot trade 41
see also chain of effectiveness of wildlife treaties, Norwegian ; CITES in Norway ; hunting of wolves and bears in Norway
Norwegian Environment Agency (NEA) 38, 41, 42, 48

O

Olszańska, A. 100
ONB (Higher Nature Protection Agencies) 134
online reptile trade 40, 53–54, 59–61, 64
Operation Quercus 112
orthologs 194
Orwell, G. 185
otherness 195–196
owner certificates 42, 46–47, 48

P

Palermo, M. T. 190, 192, 193
Paquel, K. 87, 97, 102
parrots 7, 47
African grey 7, 41, 44
owner certificates 42
trade in 41, 42, 47
Penal Code (Norway) 20, 24
Penal Code (Poland) 89, 92–93, 95, 96–97
pet trade 4, 40, 41, 45, 60
TIFIES Plan to prevent illegal exotic 114
pharmacotherapy 187
plants, genes 194
poaching
regulations in Poland on tools of 88, 89, 92, 99
three types of 71–72
TIFIES Plan
to prevent international poaching 114–115
to strengthen global partnerships on poaching 117–119
see also bird poaching in Italy
poisoning 24, 29
Poland  see hunting and killing of wolves in Poland, illegal
pre-religious and shamanistic cultures 185, 188
professional poaching 71–72
public trust doctrine (PTD) 191
public trust thinking (PTT) 191

R

Redford, K. 160
regime effectiveness studies 151
see also chain of effectiveness of wildlife treaties, Norwegian
rehoming of wildlife victims of trafficking 42, 114–115, 119–120
reproductively ‘valuable’ animals, protection of 27–29
reptile trade
harms of illegal 55–56
largest importers and exporters 39–40, 40–41, 52–53
lifting of ban in Norway 38, 41, 43–46, 49
newly discovered species 40, 55
online 40, 53–54, 59–61, 64
risk of laundering 46, 49
transnational 39–41
reptile trade in Netherlands 11, 52–69, 207–208
actors 56–58
criminal groups 56, 57, 58–59, 60, 61–62, 63
private traders 57
professional traders 56
bottlenecks for regulation 63–64
illegal trade 55–56
methodology 54–55
modi operandi 58–59
network analysis 61–62, 62, 63
online 53–54, 59–61
distinguishing between legal and illegal 64
reptile fairs 59
smuggling 58
social media 60–61, 63
reptiles
hybridization 56
lack of expertise in identifying species 59
species at risk of extinction 41, 55
welfare concerns 44–46
rescue centres 45, 114–115, 119–120
research, using animals for 187–188
restorative justice 80
rewilding of lynx in United Kingdom 13, 171–184, 210
benefits 180–181
drivers of extinction of Eurasian lynx 173
farmers’ compensation scheme 178
green criminology 169–171
harms 170, 180
legal framework 171–173, 173
legal practicalities 179–180
methods 175
opposition to 176–177
rejection of first application 177
rewilding and lynx 173–175
species justice 174–175, 181
support for 177–179

S

safaris, forest wildlife 212
Scanlon, J. 105, 106
seized live animals and revised CITES recommendations on 44, 114–115, 119–120
SEPRONA (Spanish police unit for protection of nature) 109, 110, 111, 112–113, 120
fight against eel trafficking 118–119
Operation Quercus 112
SEPRONA in Action 114
shamanistic and pre-religious cultures 185, 188
sharks 7
sheep 174, 176, 178
Singer, P. 19, 171, 194
skadefelling applications 25, 28
smuggling 58, 140
Smuggling Act 1995 (Spain) 111, 115, 116, 117, 118
Social Ecological Thought (SET) marketing 193
social media 45, 54, 60–61, 63, 64
soft incorporation 157–158
Sollund, R. 1, 5, 6, 8, 17, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 26, 28, 30, 31, 37, 38, 39, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 52, 55, 57, 59, 64, 71, 81, 89, 106, 108, 110, 114, 118, 119, 126, 132, 139, 142, 152, 154, 155, 169, 170, 171, 186, 187, 190, 191, 192, 195, 206, 207, 210, 211, 212
South, N. 5, 6, 18, 155, 169–170, 180, 192
Spain  see CITES in Spain
species justice 6, 19, 171, 196–197, 212
perspective on inquiry into legal and illegal hunts 18–19, 30–31
rewilding 174–175, 181
speciesism 170, 171, 181, 195
hierarchical 44, 171
Stockholm Declaration 153
Strategic Vision Statement 2021–30, CITES 105, 106, 107, 111, 120
street-level bureaucrats 126, 129, 134, 140, 141, 142, 143, 144
survey on illegal killing of wolves in Europe 98–100, 99
sustainable consumer behaviours 192–193
Sweden 4, 9, 129

T

tagging requirements 47–48, 48
therianthropes 188
theriocide of wolves and bears in Norway 10–11, 17–35, 206
comparison of legal and illegal theriocides 26–30
actors and means 26–27
protection of reproductively ‘valuable individuals’ 27–29
suffering of animals 29–30
‘huntable species’ 206
hunting quotas 21
illegal theriocides 23–26, 30
alleged accidental 26
organized hunts 23–24
poisoning 24, 29
suffering of animals 24, 26, 29–30
theriocides in defence 24–26
traps 24
large predator management 5, 18, 21–22, 30–31
methodology 20–21
prosecutions and convictions 20–21, 23–24, 26, 27
skadefelling applications 25, 28
‘species justifiability’ of legal hunts 30–31
theoretical perspective 18–19, 30–31
theriocide of wolves in Poland, illegal 12, 87–104, 208–209
anthropocentrism regarding welfare 94, 101
crime detection 101, 102
criminal convictions for crimes against animals 88
data collection 87
environmental NGOs involvement in court cases 97
financial value of a wolf 96
implementation of CITES and Bern Convention 93–95
jurisprudence in court cases 95–98, 101, 102
lack of awareness of consequences for 96–97, 101
legal status of wolves 89–93, 101, 102
Animal Protection Act 1997 92, 94
Hunting Law 1995 89, 92
Polish Penal Code 89, 92–93, 95, 96–97
methodology 88–89
permits for killing 94–95
property aspect 93, 94
social factors influencing toleration of 98–101, 99, 101–102
theriocides 2002–20 88
tools of poaching 88, 89, 92, 99
training in legal protection of wild animals 97–98
TIFIES Plan 113–119, 120
implement and enforce existing rules more effectively 115–117, 120
prevent illegal trafficking and international poaching of wildlife 114–115
strengthen global partnerships on wildlife trafficking and poaching 117–119
timber trade 112
tortoises 53, 55, 56, 58–59
toucans, Peruvian 117–118, 120–121
tourism, wildlife 174, 178, 180
trade reports, annual 7–8, 37
training in wildlife protection 97–98, 110, 118
in Germany 137, 138, 140
traps 24, 73–74, 189
Troiano, C. 70, 71, 73, 74, 78
trust, lack of 191–192
turtles 53, 54, 55

U

Uhm, D. P. van 39, 52, 53, 56, 57, 58, 63, 70, 114, 119, 151
UNB (Lower Nature Protection Agencies) 134, 139, 140, 141
United Kingdom  see rewilding of lynx in United Kingdom
United Nations Convention on Animal Health and Protection draft 3
United States 41, 129, 190
urbanization 190

V

veterinarians, caring for reptiles 44
victimization, environmental 170

W

WAP (Action Plan on Wildlife Trafficking) 108, 109, 110, 111, 113, 115, 120, 121
welfare, animal see animal welfare
whales 172
White, R. 6, 19, 70, 79, 168, 170, 171, 180
wild boar 179
wildlife farms 193
wildlife laundering 46–48, 49, 55, 56, 59
verification process to prevent 112
wildlife protection in Germany 12–13, 125–150, 209
attitudes to wildlife crime 138–139
criminal investigations 133, 134–135, 138–139
Customs 133, 137
deterrent effect of legislation 137
federal system and problems of law enforcement 139–141, 141–142, 143
in centralized states 140, 141
in cooperative, mixed-centralized states 140–141, 142, 144
in decentralized states 139–140, 140–141, 142, 144
federal system, pros and cons 127–128
formidable opponents 138, 140
Green Party impact 137, 142–143
legal enforcement agencies, hierarchy of 135, 135
legal enforcement, CITES and Bern Convention 132–135
in centralized states 134
in cooperative, mixed-centralized states 134
in decentralized states 134
legal enforcement, general problems 125–126, 137–139, 143
general problems of 139, 143
insufficient allocation of resources 126, 137
lack of training and expertise 137, 138, 140
lack of will to pursue 138–139
lenient sentencing 138–139, 143
low detection rates for crimes 137–138
legal framework 128–132, 130
Bern Convention 131–132
CITES 130–131
methodology 126–127, 135–136
list of interviewees 147–148
quantitative analysis of states’ capacity to prosecute violations 141–143, 142
panel regression models 142, 149–150
recommendations 144
societal awareness of wildlife exploitation 137
special units (Stabsstelle Umweltkriminalität) 141, 144
street-level bureaucrats 126, 129, 134, 140, 141, 142, 143, 144
wildlife trade
concept 192
information campaigns 114–115
in poached birds 74–75, 76
regulation see CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora)
TIFIES plan to prevent 113–119, 120
unknowing participation in 47
see also reptile trade ; reptile trade in Netherlands
Wildlife Trade Regulations, European Union 53, 63–64, 130–131
wildlife treaties, Norwegian chain of effectiveness 13, 151–167, 209–210
link 1, conventions 153–156, 163
link 2, domestic legislation 156–159, 163
Nature Diversity Act 156, 158–159
Regulation 1276 of 15 November 2002 157–158
link 3, behavioural change 159–162, 163
Wilson, E. 81
wolves 3, 4, 5, 9–10, 17
alleged accidental illegal theriocides 26
Eurogroup for Animals survey 98–100, 99
inbreeding 28
legal hunts 5, 18, 21–22, 30–31
organized illegal hunts 23–24, 28
protection of ‘genetically valuable’ 27, 28
rewilding in US 180
in symbolic iconography 188
theriocides in defence 24, 25
wounding and suffering of hunted 26, 29
see also hunting and killing of wolves in Poland, illegal ; hunting of wolves and bears in Norway
World Wildlife Fund (WWF) Poland 97, 98
World Wildlife Fund (WWF) Spain 110, 114
Wyatt, T, 8, 37, 43, 57, 70, 80, 81, 108, 114, 118, 139, 154, 170, 171, 172, 206