References to endnotes show both the page number and the note number (172n13).

88 Generation Students 24–25, 38, 56
969 movement 42, 168n11
1988 uprising 21–22

A

adversarial framing 93, 110–111
Advisory Commission on Rakhine State 46–47
aid
(de)politicization 123–130, 150
donor dependency 117–118, 132–135
expansion 121, 127–128, 163–164
foreign assistance to civil society 122, 126–127, 153–154
restrictions 119–120, 122, 153
All Burma Federation of Student Unions (ABFSU) 38, 56, 106
All Burma Monks’ Alliance (ABMA) 25, 50
All Burma Students’ Democratic Front (ABSDF) 39, 40, 59, 168n23
Alternative ASEAN Network on Burma (ALTSEAN-Burma) 63, 97, 124–125
American Center 67, 77, 126, 127
amnesties (prison) 27, 140, 173n3
Amnesty International 63, 131, 151
anti-colonial resistance 17–19, 35, 104, 168n2, 170n25
Anti-Fascist People’s Freedom League (AFPFL) 19, 36
Anti-Junta Mass Movement Committee 137
Arakan Rohingya Salvation Army (ARSA) 47
Asian Development Bank 127–128, 141
Assistance Association for Political Prisoners (Burma; AAPP) 40, 56, 88, 173n2
Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) 28, 57, 120, 152–153
Aung Kyaw Moe 147
Aung Myo Min 145, 150
Aung San, General 18–19, 36
Aung San Suu Kyi
house arrest 2, 23, 24
imprisonment (post-2021 coup) 136, 145
NLD rule see National League for Democracy
Nobel Peace Prize 24, 131
political career 22, 45, 158
Rohingya 44, 47, 131, 147
Australia 120, 124, 126
donor aid to Myanmar 126
human rights training 120

B

Ban Ki-Moon 57, 150
Bangladesh
civil society 33
Rohingya refugees 43, 47, 131, 147, 152, 172n13
Best Friend, the 50–51, 87, 171n17
Blood Money campaign 154
British
aid to Myanmar 119, 127
colonialism 14, 17–19
see also anti-colonial resistance
British Council 67, 127
Buddha Dhamma Parahita Foundation 47
see also MaBaTha
Buddhist
civil society 34, 35, 37, 38, 49–52, 58, 118, 138
nationalism 17–18, 32, 35, 42–44, 46, 131, 159
sangha (monks, nuns) 35, 50–51
see also MaBaTha
Burma Campaign UK 63, 97
Burma Center Netherlands 5, 8, 13, 96, 169n14
Burma Fund 70, 122
Burma Independence Army (BIA) 18
Burma/Myanmar name change 14–15
Burma Partnership 64–65, 88, 91, 104–105, 113
Burma Socialist Programme Party (BSPP) 20–21, 36–37, 119
Burman dominance 17, 19, 29, 53, 55, 98, 110, 155
Burmese Rohingya Organisation UK 131
Burmese Women’s Union (BWU) 40, 59
Byamaso Organization 61

C

capacity building 70, 118, 119, 121, 164
Capacity Building Initiative 70, 170n22
‘ceasefire capitalism’ 28, 149
ceasefires 28–29, 52
civil society development 38, 52–53, 121, 169n4
see also peace process, Nationwide Ceasefire Agreement
census 43, 54, 128, 166Intro–n1, 173n14
Centre for Peace and Conflict Studies (Cambodia) 101, 102, 107, 114–115
Chin
discrimination 29
ethnic sub-groups 54
post-coup military attacks 142
post-coup resistance 148
China
aid to Myanmar 120
arms trade with Myanmar 146
civil society 75–76, 79–80, 163, 169n9
UN position on Myanmar 113, 152
Christian civil society see religious organizations
Citizenship Act 20–21, 29, 44, 54
civic space see room to manoeuvre
Civil Disobedience Movement (CDM) 4, 137, 141, 145, 173n7
civil society
authoritarian rule 60, 72–76, 79, 85–86, 161–163
definitions 7–8, 31–32, 60, 68, 73–74, 84–86, 161
diversity and fault lines 49–71
ethnic organizations 34–36, 39–40, 52–53, 97, 121, 122, 148
generations 55–58
government consultation of 27, 41, 88
professionalization 32, 67, 68–70, 88, 132, 160
relations to the state 79–81, 85–86, 162
religious organizations 35, 36, 49–52, 118–119
representation 33, 55, 62, 68–69, 94, 105, 156, 158, 165
respondents 9–12, 67
role of women 58–60, 68–69, 129, 149
in (Southeast) Asia 7, 163
see also CBOs, democracy movement, GONGOs, NGOs, ‘Third Force’, welfare organizations
class 7, 29, 66–67, 149, 163
Cold War 19, 119
collective action frames 92–93
Commission of Inquiry campaign 113–115, 172n18
Committee Representing Pyidaungsu Hluttaw (CRPH) 144, 145, 147
Communist Party of Burma (CPB) 19, 167n6
community-based organizations (CBOs) 33, 34, 41, 132
‘competitive victimhood’ 54, 130
constitution
1947 19, 20
1974 20, 23, 75
2008 25–26, 81, 82, 104, 113, 136, 144, 155, 168n22
‘contingent symbiosis’ 79, 162
coup
1962 17, 20
2021 2, 83, 136, 137–138, 140
COVID-19 140
Cyclone Nargis 25–26, 57–58, 94, 99–102, 125–126

D

defections see ‘watermelons’
democracy movement 39–40, 70, 83, 171n15
donor aid 122
position of ethnic nationalities 54–55, 94, 149
position of women 59
transnational aspects 63–65, 90–91, 93, 97–98, 99–102, 159
see also student activists, exile organizations
democracy promotion 7, 32, 118, 126–127, 158
Depayin incident 24, 105, 120
diaspora see exile organizations
Dobama Asiayone 18
donor recommendations 163–165
see also aid

E

Ei Thinzar Maung 138, 145, 147
election boycott 81, 91, 103–107, 108–109, 110–112, 154
elections
1960 20
1990 23, 167n12
2010 26, 72, 81–83, 90, 96–97, 103–114, 168n13
2015 44–46, 57
2020 136
elitism in civil society 67, 69, 70–71, 84
see also professionalization
Equality Myanmar see Human Rights Education Institute of Burma (HREIB)
Esther Ze Naw 138
ethnic armed organizations (EAOs) 20, 28–29, 141, 147, 166ch2n2
see also ceasefires, peace process
ethnic nationalities 1, 15–16, 17–19, 46, 143, 148, 166Intro–n1, 166Intro–n7, 166ch1n3
federalism 19, 46, 53–55, 144, 148, 169n5
minorities within minority states 54, 169n4, 169n5
political parties 23, 45, 83, 106–108, 110–111, 167n18
victimization 28, 53–54, 82, 114, 130
Euro-Burma Office (EBO) 87, 96–97
European Parliament 150
European Union (EU) 119, 128, 129, 131, 152
exile organizations 39–41, 62–65, 87–88, 95–99, 119, 122
see also inside/outside division

F

Facebook (Meta) 43–44
farmers see rural
federalism see ethnic nationalities
Federal Democracy Charter 144
framing 92–94, 110, 154, 160
see also collective action frames
Free Burma Coalition (FBC) 63, 96, 119
Free Funeral Service Society 61, 83

G

Gambia 47, 131, 155
gender 58–60, 142, 173n5
General Council of Burmese Associations (GCBA) 35, 104
General Strike Committee 138
Generation Wave 56–57, 87, 91, 105
Generation Z 137, 142, 147
genocide 47, 168n14
government-organized non-governmental organizations (GONGOs) 60–62, 122–124
grassroots 66, 68, 134

H

hate speech (against Muslims) 4, 42–44
Hsaya San Rebellion 18, 35, 166ch1n2
Htin Kyaw 45
human rights
advocacy 90, 93–94, 101
conceptualizations 13–14, 51, 78–79, 92, 159
international movement 13, 59, 65, 95
norms 13
organizations 40, 53, 63–64, 114, 148
training 64–65, 120
Human Rights Education Institute of Burma (HREIB) 41, 64, 87, 145
Human Rights Watch 101

I

ICT for Development Organization 44
independence movement 18, 35
Independent International Fact-Finding Mission on Myanmar (IIFFMM) 47, 131
Independent Investigative Mechanism for Myanmar (IIMM) 131
India
arms trade with Myanmar 146
policy on Myanmar 120
informers see surveillance
inside/outside division 31, 62–65, 87–89, 95–102, 122–127, 129
inter-ethnic solidarity 42, 142–143
International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) 121–123
International Council of Voluntary Agencies 123
International Court of Justice (ICJ) 47, 131, 150–151, 168n14
International Criminal Court (ICC) 131, 150
International Crisis Group (ICG) 114, 123, 125, 128
international justice 113–114, 130–131
International Labour Organization (ILO) 121, 125
international Non-Governmental Organizations (INGOs) 99–100, 121–122, 123–125, 133–134, 164
intersectional lens 49, 59–60
intra-ethnic diversity 53–54, 129, 149
Islamic civil society see religious organizations

J

Japan
donor aid to Myanmar 119, 120, 172n4
occupation of Burma 18, 119
Joint Peace Fund 129, 172n12

K

Kachin
civil war 42, 46, 82, 108
ethnic sub-groups 54
post-coup military attacks 142
Kachin Baptist Convention (KBC) 36, 52–53
Kachin Independence Army (KIA) 20, 29, 142
Kachin Independence Organization (KIO) 52, 142
Karen
ethnic sub-groups 54
post-coup resistance 148
Karen Human Rights Group (KHRG) 53, 148
Karen National Union (KNU) 19, 36, 52, 141, 148
Kayah State, attack on aid workers 142, 153
Khin Nyunt 24, 28, 77, 121–122, 172n8
Ko Jimmy 139, 169n8
Ko Ni 46–47
Kyaw Moe Tun 149

L

labour unions 37, 38, 68, 138
Lanzin Youth Organization 37
LGBTIQ+ 60, 142
Letpadan demonstration 46, 129
Letpadaung copper mine 45
Local Defence Forces (LDFs) 145–146
Local Resource Centre 41, 70, 170n23

M

MaBaTha 32, 43, 47, 51, 146, 159
see also Pyu Saw Htee
‘marketing of rebellion’ 92
Maung Zarni 63–64, 96
see also Free Burma Coalition
Médecins Sans Frontières (MSF) 123–124, 130
media organizations 39, 40, 91, 99, 122, 127, 168n8
Metta Development Foundation 52, 62, 126, 133
military see tatmadaw
Military Intelligence (Service) 20, 77, 87
see also surveillance
Milk Tea Alliance 143
Min Aung Hlaing 44, 47, 131–132, 136
Min Ko Naing 38, 42, 56, 168n4
Mon
Literature and Culture Committee 36, 52
political party positions 107, 148
Myanmar Baptist Convention 51
Myanmar Egress 58, 70–71, 83–84, 91, 110–111, 170n27
see also ‘Third Force’
Myanmar Maternal and Child Welfare Association (MMCWA) 61
Myanmar Peace Center 29, 128
Myanmar Peace Support Initiative 29, 128, 172n5
Myanmar Police Force 78, 129
Myitsone Dam 41, 42, 143

N

National Coalition Government of the Union of Burma (NCGUB) 6, 24, 27, 97, 119, 123, 168n4
National Convention 24
National Democratic Force (NDF) 107, 167n18
National Endowment for Democracy 122
National Human Rights Commission 27
National League for Democracy (NLD)
election boycott 26, 81, 104
electoral victory 23–24, 27, 44–46, 136, 167n12, 173n1
leadership 13
treatment of civil society 45
treatment of Muslims 46–47, 131
National Unity Consultative Council (NUCC) 144, 155
National Unity Government (NUG) 4, 87, 144, 156, 173n6
National Unity Party (NUP) 23, 26, 167n19
Nationwide Ceasefire Agreement (NCA) 29, 53, 148, 169n5
natural resources 23, 28, 42, 53
Naypyidaw 24, 120, 138
Ne Win 20, 21, 167n8
Network for Human Rights Documentation – Burma 40, 64
non-governmental organizations (NGOs) 8, 41, 51–52, 68, 76, 132–134
NGO Registration Law 87, 139, 153
‘norm entrepreneurs’ 108
Norway 29, 128, 172n11

O

Official Development Assistance (ODA) 119, 120, 125, 127, 172n7
Official Secrets Act 47, 75, 139
Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC) 130
Organization for the Protection of Race and Religion see MaBaTha

P

Pandita Development Institute 164, 174n13
Panglong Agreement 19
parahita see welfare organizations
Paung Ku 70, 134, 170n24, 173n20
peace process 46, 53, 128, 129, 169n6
see also ceasefires, Nationwide Ceasefire Agreement
Peaceful Assembly and Peaceful Procession Law 27, 45
People’s Defence Forces (PDFs) 4, 141–142, 145–146, 150, 154–155
Phyo Zayar Thaw 45, 57, 139, 169n8
political prisoners 25, 27, 56, 75, 138, 154, 167n16, 167n17
‘popular intellectuals’ 67
positionality 5–6
pots and pans protests 137, 143
Progressive Voice see Burma Partnership
Pyoe Pin 70, 127, 170n25
Pyu Saw Htee 146

R

Race and Religion Laws 43, 159
Rakhine State
Advisory Commission 46–47
Buddhist-Muslim violence 42–44, 130
Shwe Gas pipeline 40
refugees 28, 47, 129, 172–173n13
Responsibility to protect (R2P) 151
‘Roadmap to Democracy’ 24–26
Rohingya
aid delivery 130
citizenship 29, 43, 128, 130–131, 147, 166Intro–n1
see also citizenship act
hate speech 44, 143
see also Facebook
violence 42, 43, 46–48, 158
see also genocide, international justice
room to manoeuvre 60, 72–76, 81, 117, 162, 163
rural 35, 45, 58, 65, 66, 69, 74, 85, 169n16
Russia
arms trade with Myanmar 146
invasion of Ukraine 150, 152
UN position on Myanmar 113, 152

S

‘Saffron Revolution’ 14, 24–25, 167n15
sanctions 13, 64, 95–97, 119–120, 128, 152, 154, 160
Sangha see Buddhist
Shalom (Nyein) Foundation 52, 62
Shan
ethnic sub-groups 54
Literature and Culture Committee 52
Shan Women’s Action Network 40, 59–60
sit-tat see tatmadaw
social media see Facebook
social welfare see welfare organizations
space discourse (on civil society) see room to manoeuvre
‘Spring Revolution’ 137
State Administration Council (SAC) 2, 136, 141, 149, 150, 152, 156
Special Advisory Council on Myanmar 151, 173n11
State Law and Order Restoration Council (SLORC) 22–23, 60, 75–77, 121, 167n11
State Peace and Development Council (SPDC) 26, 41, 72, 75–77, 104, 167n11
student activists 18, 21, 37–39, 55–57, 106, 168n2
see also 88 Generation students , All Burma Federation of Student Unions , All Burma Students’ Democratic Front
surveillance 25, 38, 77–78, 83, 88, 122, 157
Susanna Hla Hla Soe 45, 143, 145, 147
Swan Arr Shin 61

T

tatmadaw 154, 167n7
Tay Zar San 137
Thailand
refugees 28, 39–40, 152, 172n13
see also democracy movement, exile organizations
Telecommunications Law 139, 168n12
Than Shwe 22, 57
Thein Sein
International Crisis Group award 128
liberalisation measures 26–27, 41
peace process 29, 128, 169n5
State of the Union speech 2012 41, 88
treatment of Rohingya 42
see also Union Development and Solidarity Party (USDP)
‘Third Force’ 70–71, 83–84, 87, 90, 106, 110, 128
Thway Thout Ah-Pwe 146
tourism boycott 95, 96
transnational advocacy 90–94, 154, 165
Transnational Institute 8, 169n14

U

U Nu 19–20, 36
U Thant 37–38, 167n9
Ukraine war 150–151, 152, 155
‘uncivil society’ 8–9, 32
United Kingdom (UK) see British
United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) 134, 135, 150
UN Credentials Committee 149
UN Human Rights Council 44, 64, 114, 130–131, 152
UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs 131, 150
UN Population Fund 128
UN Special Rapporteurs on Human Rights in Myanmar
Paulo Sérgio Pinheiro 113, 124
Tom Andrews 151
Tomás Ojea Quintana 113
Yanghee Lee 130, 151
Union Election Commission (UEC) 136
Union Solidarity and Development Association (USDA) 60–61, 101, 122
Union Solidarity and Development Party (USDP) 26, 39, 41, 69, 78, 82, 104–107, 136, 173n1
United States (US)
ambassador to Myanmar 28
donor aid to Myanmar 123, 126, 127, 135
see also American Center, democracy movement, exile organizations, sanctions
Unlawful Associations Act 75, 139, 145, 171ch5n6
urban-rural division 66, 68, 69, 169n16
USAID 128, 135
US Campaign for Burma 64, 96, 113

V

Vahu Development Institute 70, 87
see also ‘Third Force’
Vietnam civil society 60, 75, 79–80, 86, 132, 163
voter education 45, 103, 106, 109

W

‘watermelons’ 144
Welfare organizations (parahita) 33, 34, 38, 51, 61–62, 85, 157, 161
Win Myint 45, 136, 145
Win Tin 113
Wirathu 43, 44, 47, 130, 146
Women’s League of Burma (WLB) 59, 64, 143
World Bank 128, 141, 172n10
World Health Organization 135
World War II 18, 36

Y

Young Men’s Buddhist Association (YMBA) 35, 37
Young Men’s Christian Association (YMCA) 37, 51
Young Women’s Buddhist Association (YWBA) 35
Young Women’s Christian Association (YWCA) 37, 51
youth 37, 55–58, 105, 147–148, 169n11

Z

Zarganar 57, 83