References to footnotes show both the page number and the note number (5n2).

A

activism, hacking as 11–12
actus reus (guilty act) 108
Afghan War Logs 85
Amazon 84
Amnesty International 65
AnonOps 84–85
anonymity 48, 49, 68
Anonymous
Arab Spring 53–54, 62–65
Cleveland 101
collectives 4–7, 112
fighting ISIS 105–106
hackers replicating state roles 35
HBGary Federal 88, 89
history of 17–26
hive mind 8, 112
information leaks 73
manifesto 7, 19–20, 60
Nigeria/Uganda 103–104
online care packages 53, 63, 64, 67–72
Operation Avenge Assange 7, 18, 73, 85
Operation BART 5n3, 99–100, 101, 102–103, 111–112
Operation Darknet 5n7, 21, 104–105
Operation DeathEaters 5n7, 21, 104–105
Operation Egypt 5n6, 38n4, 54, 63–64
Operation Ferguson 5n3, 21, 100
Operation Payback 6–7, 73, 84–85
Operation Single Gateway 54
Operation Tunisia 5n6, 38n4, 54, 63, 71
origins 7, 17–19
Palin, Sarah 87, 90, 111
structure 7–8, 48–49
Syrian government attack 54
WikiLeaks 84–85
anti-authoritarianism 17
anti-capitalism 17
anti-corporate protest 19, 38, 59–60
anti-corruption 19–20, 99
anti-establishment beliefs 7, 19, 20, 38
anti-nuclear protests 5n2, 9, 12, 17, 28
anti-piracy 6–7
Apple 68, 116
Arab Spring 53–54, 62–72
autonomy 40–41, 51, 53, 55–58, 77–80
autonomous decision-making 40–41, 56, 77–78, 80
harm 24, 45
justification for hacking 1, 2, 23, 36, 40–41, 44
political autonomy 53–72
political violence 28

B

bad/evil laws 36, 95–96, 104
Ben Ali, President 62–63, 65
BitTorrent 60
blackouts 63–64, 65, 102
blockages 12, 69
see also website shut-downs
Brown, Michael 21, 100
brute force cracking 68

C

cell phone service shut-downs 99, 101
censorship
Anonymous Manifesto 19
Arab Spring 54, 62–63, 64
cell phone service shut-downs 100
China 28, 67–68
Church of Scientology 18
DDoS as 66
government censorship 68–69
Charlie Hebdo attacks 20, 105
civil disobedience 11, 12–13, 27, 75
civil rights movements 29
Cleveland 21, 101
coercive power 13, 27, 41, 42, 94
see also violence
COINTELPRO 90
Coleman, G. 4, 5, 7, 10, 17, 18, 33, 49, 63, 66, 71, 80, 84, 87, 88, 90, 99, 100, 112, 114, 115, 116, 117
collectives 4, 49, 59, 112
Computer Fraud and Abuse Act (CFAA) 115–117
Computer Misuse Act (1990) 115
corporate hackers 8–9
see also white hat/grey hat hackers
Critical Art Essembled 19
Cruise, Tom 18
Cult of the Dead Cow (cDc) 5n4, 11, 17, 62, 66
cyber-libertarianism 4, 20
cyber-panoptic gaze 41
cyber-rights 17, 19, 60, 61–62
cyber-terrorism 5, 30, 33, 106, 113
cyberspace, conceptualisation 29

D

dark web 67–68, 97, 104–105
data-mining 43, 61
dataveillance 43, 61
degree of harm 24–25, 44–45, 50, 66–67, 77
see also severity (of harm/damage)
deliberative democracy 48, 110, 114
Delmas, C. 11, 13, 14, 27, 29, 33, 66, 75–76, 108, 109
democracy 13, 58, 60, 78, 110, 114
denial of service (DoS) 27
Denning, D. 2, 12, 27, 28, 33, 59
digital resistance/disobedience/activism 11, 33
digital rights 17, 19, 60, 61–62
discrimination 47
distributed denial of service (DDoS) 8, 27–28, 33, 55, 65–66, 67–72, 102
Arab Spring 5n6, 53–54, 63, 70
as censorship 66
Cleveland 101
costs of hacking 117
damage to systems/networks 30, 65–66, 70
level of political violence 67–72
Operation BART 99–100
Operation Payback 6–7
political hacking 27–28
as political violence 33
and the right to information 55
on Scientology churches 18
WikiLeaks 84
Zippies 17
doxxing 28–29, 33, 74
individual 74, 90–92
institutional 74, 87–90
duty of care 75–77, 98, 103

E

Egypt 63–64
see also Operation Egypt
Electrohippies 12
Electronic Disturbance Theatre 12, 19
electronic footprints 61
Electronic Frontier Foundation 19
email bombs 17, 28, 64
emails, accessing 87–88, 90, 111
encryption 67–68, 84
espionage 9, 75, 86
see also intelligence collection
Estonia 9
European Convention on Human Rights 101
Extinction Rebellion 115

F

Fabre, C. 10, 34, 38, 119
Feinberg, J. 9–10, 22–23, 40, 41, 44, 45, 75
file-sharing 60
financial costs 46, 92, 113, 116–117
FLSnag 19, 60
freedom of association 29, 42, 55–62, 101
freedom of expression 10, 19, 29, 55–62, 71, 101
freedom of information 17, 18, 19, 38, 55–62, 65n1, 67–72, 86–87
French Data Network 64

G

Golden Shield Project (Great Firewall of China) 45n13, 67–68
good laws 94–99, 117
graffiti 12, 29
grey hat hackers 8

H

hacker ethic 18–19
hacking
forms of 3–8
history 17–26
hacktivism 11–13, 26–27, 30, 33
harm 9–10, 22–26
duration of 25, 51
duty to prevent 75–76, 98, 108, 117
harm-benefit calculations 46, 50, 66, 71–72, 82–83, 92, 98, 104, 106, 118
justification of 9–10
negligence 97–98
political violence spectrum 22–24
responsibility of hackers for 103
HBGary Federal 87, 88–90
human flesh search engine 90–92
human rights 11, 28, 34, 36, 38–39, 95, 101

I

India 4, 28, 67–68
Indonesia 28
information release/leaking 33, 73–93, 100, 101–103, 105
see also doxxing
intelligence collection 66, 69, 75, 79, 85
intelligence organizations 61, 76, 78–79, 87, 120
invalid laws 36
see also bad/evil laws
Iran 9
Iraq 17, 84
Iraq War Logs 85–86
ISIS 20, 105–106

J

journalism 57, 86–87, 88
JPMorgan Chase data breach 4
JSTOR 6, 114–115
just criteria, application of 65–72
just war 9–10, 34–35, 108–109
justification spectrum 49–51, 101

L

last resort 110
laws
bad/evil 36, 95–96, 104
to deal with hacking crimes 115–116
good laws 94–99, 117
leaks see information release/leaking
legitimate/illegitimate targets 10, 47, 80–82
Levy, S. 4, 17, 18, 60
LGBTQ+ 21, 103–104
libertarianism 20
liberty 40, 41–42, 45, 57, 119
life 38–39
LulzSec 2–3, 4, 54

M

malware 29, 33
Mastercard 18, 84
Megaupload 38n5
Milw0rm 28
miscarriages of justice 97–98
misinformation 60, 78, 85–86
MIT 17, 114–115

N

NASA 5n2, 9, 17
national security
changing conceptions of 118–120
state powers 6
whistleblowing 19, 60, 74–75, 79, 85, 89
negligence 36–37, 97–98
Nigeria 21, 103–104
non-violence
civil disobedience 12–13, 27, 29
hacktivism 11, 27
Nussbaum, M. 9–10, 23, 40, 44

O

occupation movements 29, 49, 67
onion routing 68
online care packages 53, 63, 64, 67–72
open-source data collection 82
Operation Aurora 9
Operation Avenge Assange 7, 18, 73, 85
Operation BART 5n3, 99–100, 101, 102–103, 111–112
Operation Chanology 18
Operation Comelec 54
Operation Darknet 5n7, 21, 104–105
Operation Darknet Relaunch 104–105
Operation DeathEaters 5n7, 21, 104–105
Operation Egypt 5n6, 38n4, 54, 63–64
Operation Ferguson 5n3, 21, 100
Operation Ghostnet 9
Operation Megaupload 38n5
Operation Payback 6–7, 73, 84–85
Operation Single Gateway 54
Operation Tunisia 5n6, 38n4, 54, 63, 71
oversight 20, 41, 47–49, 56, 75, 102, 120

P

paedophile rings 5n7, 21, 104–105
Palin, Sarah 87, 90, 111
PayPal 18, 84–85
peer-to-peer platforms 60
Philippines 54
Phineas Phisher 10
phishing 63
piracy 19
Pirate Bay 60
police shootings 21, 99–101, 102, 121
political agency 56–58
political hacking 1–2, 3–8, 26–30
distinction from cyber-terrorism 30
history of 16–31
reshaping the approach 113–122
political violence 23–26
conclusions on 123–125
decision making and bias 47–49
hackers using 33–37
justifications for 37–36, 49–51
spectrum of 21–26, 66–67, 70–71, 124
state authority 34–35
President’s Review Group on Intelligence and Communications Technologies 119–120
privacy 40, 42–43, 50–51
bodily privacy 43
concentric circles of 50
as control 42–43
corporate 88–89
dataveillance and data-mining 61
doxxing 28–29, 87–90
information release/leaking 33, 73–93, 100, 101–103, 105
justifications for hacking 42–43
privacy-security 119–120
right to privacy 42n10, 62, 65n1, 69–70, 88–89, 124
privacy-plus 69
Project Chanology 18
proportionality 46–47, 81, 82–83, 106, 110, 124
public interest hacks 80–82, 87–90
publicity principle 110–111
Putin, Vladimir 86

R

ransomware 4
Rawls, J. 12, 22–23, 36, 60, 75, 95
reasonable force 117–118
reasonable suspicion 82
reddit.com 49, 112
Reporters Without Borders Press Freedom index 63
resistance 66, 75–76
retributive justice 95
right intention 10, 107–110, 124
rights
autonomy 41
digital rights 17, 19, 60, 61–62
human rights 11, 28, 34, 36, 38–39, 95, 101
protest 101
self-defence 30
Ruffin, Oxblood 11, 62, 66
Russia 86

S

San Francisco 99
Sauter, M. 11, 33, 66
Scientology, Church of 18
secrecy 20, 60, 78–79, 84, 85, 87, 110–111
security industry 81, 87, 88–90
self-defence 10, 14, 30, 32–33, 38–39, 43–46, 49–50, 81, 109–110, 117–118, 125
severity (of harm/damage) 24–25, 51, 83, 92, 98, 113, 123–124
see also degree of harm
Snowden, Edward 19, 73, 84, 119, 120
social contract 34
social media 59, 64, 88, 91, 106, 112
social shaming 91–92, 93
state hacking 9
Strano Network 12
Stratfor 73, 87
structural violence 26
Stuxnet computer worm 9
surveillance 41, 43, 56, 60, 85, 120
surveillance companies 10, 64
surveillance-evading tools 63
Swartz, Aaron 6, 10, 114–115
Syrian government attack 54, 64

T

Tech Model Railroad Club 17
telecom companies 20
Telecomix 10, 62, 63, 64, 70
Thailand 54
Thomson, J. J. 38, 43, 45, 69, 81, 108, 109
Titan Rain 9
TOR 63, 64, 67–68
torrent websites 19
transparency 20, 41, 56, 60, 102, 121, 124
trolling 17, 18
Tunisia 62–65
see also Operation Tunisia
Twitter 5, 100, 103, 105, 106

U

Uganda 21, 103–104
Ukraine 4
uncivil disobedience 13–14, 75
UNESCO 57
Universal Declaration and International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights 1966 (ICCPR) 65n1, 95
Universal Declaration of Human Rights 36

V

violence
cyber-terrorism 30
defined 22–24
defined as honourable 79
political hacking 1, 13, 16, 26–30
political violence spectrum 21–26
self-defence 117
state monopoly on 1, 3, 122, 123
virtual sit-ins 12, 27, 29–30
viruses 29, 33
Visa 18, 84

W

Wall Street protests 30
Walzer, M. 80, 81
WANK worm 5n2, 17
WannaCry 4
Warren, Chief Justice 58
Watergate 83
WauchulaGhost 105
website defacements 12, 28, 29, 69, 92, 105
website redirects 12
website shut-downs 63–64, 100, 101–103, 104, 105
see also distributed denial of service (DDoS)
website tracking data 61, 64
whistleblowing 19, 20, 60, 73, 74–87, 116, 120–122, 124
white hat/grey hat hackers 8–9
Wikileaks 7, 18, 20, 73, 83–87, 88, 89–90