Index

Publication Date:
01 Jul 2024
Pages:
271–282
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.51952/9781529242249.bm004
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Karl Marx famously argued that the historical emergence of the working class as a collective actor resulted from acts of resistance against the continuous extension of the working day, which occurred in the context of the Industrial Revolution and was driven by capitalist competition. In an age where parts of the world experience sustained processes of deindustrialization, this raises the question of what happens to working classes when the factory gates are shut for good. It is possible to address this issue by resorting to strike research and focusing on the service and public sectors. Accordingly, the research question addressed in this book is this: What are the class effects of non-industrial strikes – or how far do they contribute to working-class formation? The author addresses it by taking three steps. First, he shows that the existing global labour studies literature insufficiently engages with class theory; second, he addresses this shortcoming by conceptualizing class and class formation from a critical-realist and materialist angle; and third, he conducts an incorporated comparison of non-industrial strike action around the globe in the age of the Great Crisis by (a) mapping 387 strikes in the service and public sectors from 56 countries and autonomous territories and (b) by zooming in on the railway strikes in Germany, the junior doctors’ strikes in Britain and the general strikes against austerity and the feminist general strikes in Spain.

References to tables appear in bold type. References to figures are in italics. References to endnotes show both the page number and the note number (231n3).

A

abortion bans, strikes against 85, 180–181
adsorption 59–60, 63, 77–78, 81, 88, 137–139, 150–151, 172–174
African National Congress (ANC) 35, 38, 45
Agenda 2010 (Germany) 24n2, 105–106, 117
agreements, trade 21, 84
agricultural sector 48n1, 50, 52, 94, 94
aims  see character of aims
Alexander, Heidi 144
alienation 59, 62, 62n5, 63, 65, 204
Allende government (Chile) 26
Alqueza, Christen 199–200
Althusser, Louis 10, 65
Amazon 75–76, 205, 212
ANC (African National Congress) 35, 38, 45
antagonisms 10, 33, 37, 62, 65, 98, 139, 178
Antentas, Josep Maria 174
Antigua and Barbuda 73, 82
Antoñanzas, Cristina 195–196
Apartheid 26, 27, 38
apparatuses of capitalist state 53, 55, 57, 58–59, 61, 79–80, 84, 135, 136, 156
Arab Spring 85, 165
archeologists 12–13
Argentina 26, 58, 85, 86, 180, 182
Arrimadas, Inés 186n12
Arruzza, C. 195, 197
assumptions
coding 209, 212–213
global level, of research at a 4
incorporated comparison 12–13, 17
methodological Fordism 3, 4
neoliberalist 19–20, 21, 22, 78, 133, 135
patriarchal 175–176, 179
theoretical, risks of making 5–6, 7, 8
see also subsumptionism
austerity
as crisis management 20, 40, 58–59, 66, 154
public sector, in the 78–79, 88, 137, 139–141
strikes against 58, 59, 86, 140–141, 147–151, 155, 161–165
Austria 45, 58
authoritarianism
anti- 30
resistance to 9, 85, 124, 152
rise of 26–27, 29, 41, 43–44, 47, 55
autonomous territories 68, 68n2, 83, 207

B

bailouts 20, 40, 41, 139, 154
banks
bailouts for 38–39, 154
independence of 28, 28n5, 31, 84
low rates of interest 40, 41, 46
mortgage market 38, 139, 153
Basic Law (Germany) 99, 100, 122, 132
Battle of Seattle 33
Baumgartner, Sven (interviewee) 123–124, 216
BDA (Confederation of German Employers’ Associations) 102, 115
Beamten status 100, 100n4, 109, 109n11, 111, 113–114
Begin government (Israel) 26
Belarus 9, 87
Belfrage, Claes Axel 212–213
Belgium 57, 58
Bershka 196
Bhorat, Haroon 208n3
bias
gender 177, 187–188
media 208n3
selection 6, 8–9, 57n4, 67–68, 208
Biden, Joe 45, 47
Bieling, H.-J. 42n8
Bild-Zeitung 119, 128–129
bipartism 99, 158, 159–160
Black Friday 76
Blaikie, Norman 16
Blair, Tony 35–36
Blair government (Britain) 30, 35, 136, 140
BMA (British Medical Association) 142–147, 148–149, 150, 151, 202
Boric, Gabriel 45, 85
Borjans, Norbert-Walther 128
Botswana 85
Brazil 45, 56
bread and butter strikes  see collective bargaining strikes
Bretton Woods system 28, 28n5, 29
Brexit 137
Britain
about 14
austerity measures 139–141
deindustrialization in 91–96, 92, 134
gender relations 178
junior doctors’ strike  see junior doctors’ strike (Britain)
liberal collectivism in 134–135, 136
liberalism in 133–134
neoliberalism in 134, 136–137, 138
NHS (National Health Service) 141–142
private sector in 133
public sector in 56, 57, 137–139, 140–141
stoppages in 77, 137–138
strike activity in (overview) 59, 95, 96, 96, 136, 140–141
union activity in (overview) 92, 93, 94, 94, 95, 95
see also Blair government (Britain) ; Brown government (Britain) ; Callaghan government (Britain) ; Cameron government (Britain) ; Johnson government (Britain) ; Labour Party (Britain) ; NUM (National Union of Mineworkers) (Britain) ; Thatcher government (Britain) ; specific unions (e.g., GMB, Unison, Unite)
British Medical Association  see BMA (British Medical Association)
Browne, Gaston 82
Brown government (Britain) 81–82, 136, 139–140
Bsirske, Frank 118
bubbles 31, 38, 153–154
Bündnis für unsere Bahn (alliance for our railways) (Germany) 126–127
Bush, George H.W. 34
Bush administration (George W.) (US) 36

C

Caesarism 46, 47
Callaghan government (Britain) 33–34
Calleja Jiménez, José Pablo 164, 173
Cameron government (Britain) 136, 137, 139–140, 141–142, 143, 149
capital
about 19, 176
controls 28–29, 28n5, 31, 39, 84
crisis of 26–27, 40–41, 43, 44
labour and 10, 36, 44
settlements between, and labour 24, 25, 25n3, 30
social partnership 98–102, 103, 105, 107, 108, 124–126
as undead (zombie metaphor) 19–20, 42–43, 47
weakness of 45–47
Capital (Marx) 19, 53, 177–178
capitalism
conjuncture of crisis 25–28
crisis management and 20, 38–40, 43
informational 74–75
profits, fixes to increase 31, 50
research on 3–5
capitalist mode of production
as contradiction 10, 42, 65
ecological dominance of 60–62, 65, 138, 175–176
as global 5
patriarchal domination and 175–176
capitalist relations of production
instability of 24–25
public sector 53, 60–62, 65
unions and 22, 102, 131, 137–138
Carmena, Manuela 186
Castells, Manuell 6, 51, 63, 73–74, 88, 91, 94–95, 98, 134, 203
Catalonia 87, 181, 186n12, 189, 192
catastrophic disequilibrium 47
CC.OO (Workers’ Commissions, Spain)
about 152n1, 157, 158
austerity measures, responses to 162
general strikes 168–169, 170–171, 187
social pacts 160, 164
CDU (Christian Democratic Union of Germany) 103, 104, 121
CEOE (employers’ association) (Spain) 160
CEPYME (employers’ association) (Spain) 160
CGT (General Confederation of Work) (Spain) 157, 183, 186, 189
CGTP (General Confederation of Portuguese Workers) 170
character of aims (strikes) 70–72, 72, 82, 211, 214
Charité (Germany) 79
Chile 24n2, 32, 45, 85
China 29, 31–32, 80
Christian Democratic Union of Germany (CDU) 103, 104, 121
Christian Social Union (CSU) (Germany) 103, 104, 121
Christian Trade Union Federation of Germany 104
CIG (Galician Unions Confederacy) (Spain) 157, 158
Ciudadanos party (Spain) 186, 186n12
Claar, Simone 66
class-based strikes 72, 72, 82–87, 88
see also organic code
class domination
about 78
collective rights and 101
patriarchal domination 175–180, 184–185, 193–194, 197
public sector, in 139
class effects
about 70, 71, 201, 209
assessing, challenges of 113, 131, 138, 192
coding of 209–210, 213
direct 192, 192n14
divisive 193
expansive 193
social partnership, of 98–102
class feeling
characteristics of 16–17, 193–194, 202–203
examples of 74, 81, 82, 124, 150, 162, 197
class formation
feminist general strikes (Spain) 190–197
general strikes (Spain) 173–175
junior doctors’ strikes (Britain) 139, 149–151
railway strikes (Germany) 130–132
strikes and 8, 15, 115
see also working-class formation
class locations
adsorption and 81, 88, 139
consistent 150
contradictory 52, 58, 59–60, 77, 109n11, 129–130, 201, 201
climate change 19, 20, 41–42, 46
Clinton, Hillary 46
Clinton administration (US) 30, 35, 36
CNT (National Confederation of Work) (Spain) 157, 186
co-determination 101, 158
coding 67, 70–72, 72, 209–214
Coelho government (Portugal) 86
Colau, Ada 186
collective bargaining
autonomy 101
Germany 98–102, 106, 107–108, 109–111, 114–116, 118–122, 124–126
collective bargaining strikes
about 71–72, 72, 73–74
see also mostly economic code
collective rights 101
Collier, Andrew 144
Comisión 8M (Marzo) Estatal (Spain) 183–184, 186, 187, 188, 195
Comisiones de Base (Spain) 186
commodities  see goods
Communist Party of Spain 157, 186
comparison  see encompassing comparison ; incorporated comparison
competitive corporatism 107–108, 115, 123, 130
Confederation of German Employers’ Associations (BDA) 102, 115
confluence of mobilizations 174
Congress of South African Trade Unions  see COSATU (Congress of South African Trade Unions)
conjunctures
of crisis 25, 28–29, 40, 41, 43–44, 46–47, 58, 203
labour disputes during 66, 83, 85, 88, 104, 112–113, 147–149, 200
political 28
constituencies
about 16–17
comparison 201, 202, 203
feminist general strikes (Spain) 188, 193, 195–196
general strikes (Spain) 162, 163, 164, 166, 169, 171, 173–174, 193, 195–196
junior doctors’ strike (Britain) 147
railway strikes (Germany) 114, 115, 122, 126, 127, 130, 131
consumers 36, 46, 53–54
contradictions
capitalist mode of production as 10, 42, 65
invisibility of 7
strikes as 10, 17, 112–113, 123
co-optation 102, 174
Corbyn, Jeremy 45, 47, 86, 147
COSATU (Congress of South African Trade Unions) 37–38, 79
Costa Rica 57, 58
coups d’état 26, 29, 32, 44, 87
COVID-19 pandemic
as bargaining tool 126, 151
capitalism, and 45, 46
crisis management and 19, 20, 40, 41–42
impacts of 43–45, 129, 197
strikes during 188–190
crisis 23
see also global financial crisis ; Great Crisis ; organic crisis ; sovereign debt crisis
critical grounded theory 212–213
critical realism 8, 11, 13, 17, 212–213
Crouch, Colin 36
CSIF (Independent and Civil Servants’ Union Centre) (Spain) 157, 162
CSU (Christian Social Union) (Germany) 103, 104, 121
cycles, productivist 25, 105, 107

D

data, sector 48–52, 50, 51
Däubler, Wolfgang 122
Davis, Angela 182
DBB (German Civil Service Federation) 104, 121
debt, public 28. 39, 40, 139–140, 154–155
deindustrialization
industrialization, relationship to 32, 50
unions, impact of on 32, 47, 51, 138
Western Europe, in 91–96, 92, 134
demands
about 16–17
comparison 201, 202, 203
feminist general strikes (Spain) 15, 175, 177, 182, 187–188, 189–190, 191–192, 193–197
general strikes (Spain) 162, 163, 165–166, 167, 169, 171, 173, 174, 191–192, 193, 197
junior doctors’ strike (Britain) 147, 149
railway strikes (Germany) 113, 114, 115, 118, 121, 122–123, 125, 126, 130
Denmark 58
density of unions 55, 58, 58, 62n5, 91–95, 92n1, 93, 94, 95, 136–138
Der Spiegel 119
despotism 59, 62, 62n5, 63, 65, 83–84, 199, 204
Deutsche Bahn (Germany)
about 108, 124
interviews 216
labour relations 109–110, 114–115, 116, 124–126, 131–132
strikes at 112, 117–121, 126–129
DGB (German Trade Union Confederation)
about 7, 102–104, 113
GDL and 116, 118–120, 122, 124, 128, 130–131
membership 107–108
dictatorships 26–27, 32, 46, 92n1
Die Tageszeitung (Berlin) 67, 206, 208
direct class effects 192, 192n14
division of tasks 31–32, 60–61, 62
divisive class effects 193
Doctors’ Association UK 147
dominantly economic code  see mostly economic code
domination  see class domination ; patriarchal domination
Dörre, Klaus 119, 123
double-dip recession 153–154
Dribbusch, Heiner 125–126
dynamics  see mobilizing dynamics

E

East German Socialist Unity Party (SED) 106
ecological dominance 60–62, 65, 138, 175–176
economic and politicized code 70, 71, 72, 72, 78, 82, 211–212
see also expansive-politicized strikes
economic crisis  see global financial crisis
economic extension code 213
economic globalization 28, 30
The Economist 105
Education and Science Workers’ Union (GEW) 102–103, 119–120
ELA (Solidary of Basque Workers) (Spain) 157, 158
Elliott, Victoria 70
Elsner, Carsten 66
emergent totality 13
employment  see unemployment
encompassing comparison 5, 12
The End of History and the Last Man (Fukuyama) 34n7
Engels, Friedrich 176
Enzensberger, Hans-Magnus 34n7
Eribon, Didier 37
Esser, J. 160, 161
ETUC (European Trade Union Confederation) 170
Eurowings 76n4
Eurozone 39, 92, 106–107, 153, 155–160, 202
EVG (Railway and Transport Union) (Germany)
about 111, 112, 114
collective bargaining, response to 119, 122, 127
GDL and 116, 118, 124–126, 129–130, 131
strike action by 7, 112, 125–126, 201
exclusively political strikes  see strikes for political aims
exclusive solidarity 107, 114, 115, 193–194, 209
expansive class effects 193
expansive-politicized strikes 72, 72, 78–82, 88, 144, 170
see also economic and politicized code
expansive solidarity 16–17, 74, 193–194, 204
see also class feeling
exploitation 60, 62, 62n5, 63, 65, 183, 189, 204
extension strikes 71–72, 72, 74–78, 88
see also mostly economic code

F

far-right 27, 45, 47, 112, 180, 189
Federal Republic of Germany 98, 99, 99n3
see also Germany
#feesmustfall 76
feminism
intersectional 185
labour struggle, of 167
protest movements 180–181
second-wave 27
feminist general strikes (Spain)
8M (International Women’s Strike) (2018, 2019) 182–188
class formations and 190–197
comparison 201, 201–202
constituencies  see constituencies
COVID-19 pandemic, during 188–190
demands  see demands
demonstrations 181
mobilizing dymanics  see mobilizing dynamics
as organic 85, 194–195, 197
Ferlemann, Enak 128
financial crisis  see global financial crisis
Finland 58, 210
Fire Brigades Union (Britain) 37, 145
fixes to increase profits 31, 50
Food, Beverages and Catering Union (NGG) (Germany) 119–120
Forces of Labor (Silver) 32, 66, 206
Fordism 3–4, 25n3, 200–201, 204
Foucault, Michel 12
fragmentation 41, 46, 74, 77, 91–92, 109–110, 131, 138, 203
France 29–30, 33, 37, 68n2, 86, 88, 178–179
Franco regime (Spain) 92n1, 156, 157, 159
Fraser, Nancy 33, 182
free markets 10, 22, 30, 33, 34, 35, 40–41, 45, 108, 141
free trade 21–22, 30, 41, 133
Free Workers’ Union (Germany) 103n6
Frese, Alfons 120
Friedman, Milton 22, 28–29, 35
Fukuyama, Francis 34n7
Furnivall, David 146n10

G

Gabriel, Sigmar 119
Galician Unions Confederacy (CIG) (Spain) 157, 158
García, Daiana 180
GDBA (Union of Beamten and Beamten Candidates at Deutsche Bundesbahn) 110, 111, 115
GdED (Union of Railway Workers of Germany) 110–111, 113–114
GDL (Union of German Train Drivers)
about 7, 104, 109
Beamten status, defending of 109, 110, 111
DGB and 116, 118–120, 122, 124, 128, 130–131
EVG and 116, 118, 124–126, 129–130, 131
interviews 216
militancy of 111–114
strike waves by 114–116, 116–124, 126–130
gender
biases 177, 187–188
as class 85, 197
inequality barriers 176–177, 183
labour and 178–180
public health institution workers 167
see also feminism ; feminist general strikes (Spain)
General Confederation of Portuguese Workers (CGTP) 170
General Confederation of Work  see CGT (General Confederation of Work)
general strikes
about 152
austerity measures, against 86
legality of 88
see also feminist general strikes ; general strikes (Spain)
general strikes (Spain)
14-N 171
15-M (2011) 165–166, 169, 171, 172, 174, 184, 191
2010 strikes 162–165
class formation and 173–175
comparison 201, 201–202
constituencies  see constituencies
demands  see demands
green wave (marea verde) 59, 166, 167, 168–170, 171–172
mobilizing dynamics  see mobilizing dynamics
white wave (marea blanca) 59, 166, 167, 172
General Union of Workers of Spain  see UGT (General Union of Workers of Spain)
geographical extension code 212
Georgia 80, 81
German Civil Service Federation (DBB) 104, 121
German Trade Union Confederation  see DGB (German Trade Union Confederation)
Germany
about 14, 97, 98–99
Agenda 2010 24n2, 105–106, 117
Beamten status 100, 100n4, 109, 109n11, 111, 113–114
collective bargaining 98–102, 106, 107–108, 109–111, 114–116, 118–122, 124–126
competitive corporatism 107–108, 115, 123, 130
deindustrialization in 91–96
Die Tageszeitung 67, 206, 208
legislation, union 100
liberalism in 10, 108
media coverage 119–120, 123, 124, 128–129
neoliberalism in 105–106, 111, 114, 117, 130–131
public sector 56, 57
railway strikes  see railway strikes (Germany)
social partnership model 98–102, 103, 104–105, 107, 108, 124–126
strike activity in (overview) 59, 74, 75, 77, 79, 95, 96, 96, 97–98
tripartism 99, 101–102, 107
union activity in (overview) 58, 88, 92, 93, 94, 94, 95, 95
Unity of Collective Bargaining Act 127–129, 132
see also Deutsche Bahn (Germany) ; Kohl government (Germany) ; Schröder government (Germany) ; SPD (Social Democratic Party) (Germany) ; West Germany ; specific unions (e.g., DGB, EVG, GDL)
GEW (Education and Science Workers’ Union) (Germany) 102–103, 119–120
global financial crisis
about 38–40
bailouts 20, 40, 41, 139, 154
see also Great Crisis
globalization, economic 28, 30
GMB (Britain) 135
Goes, Thomas 63–64
Göhner, Reinhard 115
González Begega, Sergio 155n5, 159, 171, 172
goods
consumer-producer relationship 53–54
production 54–55, 60, 61, 64–65
traffic 117, 118, 128, 128
Gough, Ian 62
Gowan, Peter 30–31, 38
Grady, Jo 150
Gramsci, Antonio 23, 28, 46
Great Crisis
austerity measures during 58, 66
Britain, impact on 137–138
capital-labour relationship in 46, 47, 92, 94, 162
Germany, impact on 107, 130
Spain, impact on 153, 159
Greece 39, 86, 171
Green Party (Germany) 45, 103, 105–106, 121
green wave (marea verde) (Spain)  see general strikes (Spain)
The Guardian (London) 67, 206
Gummer, Ben 147–148

H

Hall, Peter 4
Hall, Stuart 85
Harman, Chris 19
Harvey, David 32, 39
Hauf, Felix 212–213
Hayek, Friedrich August 22, 29, 35
Healey, Dennis 33–34
Heath, Ted 84
Hegel, G.W.F. 34n7
Helle, Idar 174
Hinck, Gunnar 128–129
Hoffmann, Jürgen 114
Hoffmann, Reiner 103, 119, 121, 122, 128
Honduras 87, 192
Hunt, Jeremy 143, 144, 146
Hürtgen, Stefanie 108
Hyman, Richard 66

I

ICTWSS (Institutional Characteristics of Trade Unions, Wage Setting, State Intervention and Social Pacts) 55
IG BCE (Industrial Union Mining, Chemicals, Energy, Germany) 118, 119, 122, 130
IG Metall (Germany) 102, 103, 119, 130
Iliffe, Steve 143
ILO (International Labour Organization) 43, 44, 48–49, 48n1, 53, 198–199, 208n3
incorporated comparison 11–13, 13–14, 17, 67, 91, 133
Independent and Civil Servants’ Union Centre (CSIF) (Spain) 157, 162
India 26, 31–32, 35, 56, 58, 73, 76n4, 85, 208, 209, 210, 211
industrialization 32, 50, 134–135, 174, 177, 178–179, 199
see also deindustrialization
industrial relations 3–4, 160
industrial sector
data 49–50, 50, 51, 134
shifts in 198–199
strikes in 26, 52, 97–98, 163
unions in 94, 94
inflation 25, 28–29, 30, 46, 210
insourcing 75, 77
interest rates 31, 38, 39, 41, 134
International Labour Organization  see ILO (International Labour Organization)
International Women’s Day 175, 182, 189, 197
International Women’s Strike 182
see also feminist general strikes (Spain)
interrupted services dilemma 148, 166
Intersindical Alternativa de Catalunya 189
Intersindical — Confederació Sindical Catalana 189
interviews 215–216
Ireland 74, 155, 212
Israel 26
Italy 52, 76, 171, 182
Izquierda Unida (Spain) 186

J

Japan 58
Jessop, Bob 5, 24n2, 60–61
Johnson, Boris 41
Johnson government (Britain) 44, 47, 137
journalists  see media
junior doctors’ strike (Britain)
about 59, 142–147, 145, 147–149, 149–151
comparison 201, 201
constituencies 147
demands 147, 149
mobilizing dynamics 149

K

Keynesianism, privatized 36, 38
Köhler, Holm-Detlev 164, 173, 174
Kohl government (Germany) 110
Krischer, Oliver 128
Kurz, Sebastian 41, 47

L

LAB (Nationalist Workers’ Commissions) (Spain) 157, 158
labour
capital and 10, 36, 44
crisis of 26, 27, 43
as dead capital (zombie metaphor) 19–20, 42–43, 47
division of 31–32, 60–61
gender divisions and 175–180
settlements between, and capital 24, 25, 25n3, 30
social partnership 98–102, 103, 105, 107, 108, 124–126
weakness of 46–47
Labour Party (Britain)
about 27, 34–35, 37, 45
public sector strikes under 86, 146
unions and 135–136
Lafontaine, Oskar 106
Las Kellys (Spain) 196, 196n15
la Transición (Spain) 92, 92n1, 137, 152, 157, 159, 161, 165–166
Latvia 58
Lehman Brothers 39
Lenin, V.I. 135
liberal collectivism 134–135, 136
liberalism 9–10, 25n3, 27–28, 29–30, 34n7, 46, 108, 133–135
Lowry, L.S. 198, 199–200
Lufthansa 6, 76n4, 108, 193
Lukashenko regime (Belarus) 87, 192
Luque Balbona, David 155n5, 159, 171, 172
Luxemburg, Rosa 65, 79n5, 81, 83, 85n6, 124

M

Macri government (Argentina) 86
The Mail & Guardian (Johannesburg) 67, 206
Major government (Britain) 34, 136
Mandelson, Peter 35–36
Manifesto of the Communist Party (Marx and Engels) 176, 178
mapping 13, 14, 17, 18, 66–67, 70, 206–209
Marburger Bund (Germany) 104, 121
marea blanca  see general strikes (Spain)
marea verde  see general strikes (Spain)
markets
about 22
free markets 10, 22, 30, 33, 34, 35, 40–41, 45, 108, 141
global financial, creation of 28, 30–31
Marx, Karl
on capital 19, 176, 177–178, 179, 183
on class formation 132, 193–194, 195, 197
on consumption-production relationship 53–54
on modes of production 24, 60–61, 131, 137
on slavery 179–180
Mason, Paul 166
May government (Britain) 46, 137, 140
McMichael, Philip 4, 5, 11–12, 13, 17
McMillan, MaryBe 81
media
bias 208n3
Germany, coverage in 119–120, 123, 124, 128–129
sampling of 67
Spain, coverage in 166
strike coverage 15
Mendez, Cándido 163
Merkel, Angela 115
Metcalfe, David 146n10
methodological Fordism 3–4, 200–201, 204
migrants 26, 27, 49, 105, 172, 185
militant action  see stoppages
miners  see NUM (National Union of Mineworkers) (Britain)
Mitterrand government (France) 29–30, 34
mobilizing dynamics
about 16–17
comparison 201, 202–203
feminist general strikes (Spain) 182, 188, 192, 193, 196
general strikes (Spain) 163, 166, 170, 171, 174–175, 193, 196
junior doctors’ strike (Britain) 149
railway strikes (Germany) 113, 115, 123, 126, 130
mode of intervention code 212
mode of production  see capitalist mode of production
Modi, Narendra 41
Modi government (India) 76n4
Montoya, Nuria 169
Moody, Kim 49, 50, 88
mortgages 36, 38–39, 139, 153–154
mostly economic code 70, 71–72, 72, 73, 74–75, 211
see also collective bargaining strikes ; extension strikes
mostly political code 70, 71, 72, 72, 211–212
see also strikes for political aims
Müller, Franziska 66

N

Nahles, Andrea 115, 119, 121
National Association of Education Professionals (Spain) 157
National Confederation of Work (CNT) (Spain) 157, 186
National Health Service  see NHS (National Health Service) (Britain)
Nationalist Workers’ Commissions (LAB) (Spain) 157, 158
National Union of Metalworkers of South Africa (NUMSA) 37–38
National Union of Mineworkers  see NUM (National Union of Mineworkers) (Britain)
National Union of Rail, Maritime and Transport Workers  see RMT (National Union of Rail, Maritime and Transport Workers)
neoliberalism
about 21–23, 29
assumptions of 19–20, 21, 22, 78, 133, 135
Britain, in 134, 136–137, 138
class-based strikes and 84–85
collapse of 40–43
crisis faced by  see organic crisis
Germany, in 105–106, 111, 114, 117, 130–131
progressive 33, 35–36, 37
unions and 22–23, 37–38, 51, 78–79
neoliberalization
about 24n2, 55
inequality caused by 31–33
labour, impact of on 23, 37, 77, 78, 134, 136–137
push towards 103, 105–106, 160
strikes against 58, 88, 117, 184, 191
Netherlands 58
Neumann, Manuel 66
new left 27
new realism 34–35
new right 29, 30, 33, 34, 36
news media  see media
The New York Times 67, 206
New Zealand 58
NGG (Food, Beverages and Catering Union) (Germany) 119–120
NHS (National Health Service) (Britain) 141–142
see also junior doctors’ strike (Britain)
Nigeria 32
Northern Rock mortgage bank (Britain) 38, 139
Norway 58, 75
Nowak, Jörg 70, 209, 215
NUM (National Union of Mineworkers) (Britain) 32, 33, 51, 136
NUMSA (National Union of Metalworkers of South Africa) 37–38

O

OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development) 55, 57, 106, 199
O’Grady, Frances 145
Orbán, Viktor 41
order of knowledge 61, 62
organic code 70, 71, 72, 72, 82
see also class-based strikes
organic crisis
about 23–24, 41–43, 42n8
management of 20, 38–40
responses to 24n2
symptoms of 45–47
organic strikes 83, 85, 88, 139, 140–141, 152, 162, 170, 194–195, 197, 211
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development  see OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development)
organized labour  see unions
Osborne, George 140
outsourcing 50, 76, 76n4, 77
#outsourcingmustfall 76, 77
ownership of means of production code 213
Oxfam 44, 183
όχι referendum (Greece) 39, 86

P

Páez, Chiara 180
Página/12 (Buenos Aires) 67, 206, 208
pandemic  see COVID-19 pandemic
Panitch, Leo 7, 73–74, 88, 95, 132, 137–138, 203
Parfitt, Steven 150–151
Partido Popular  see PP (Partido Popular) (Spain)
Party of Democratic Socialism (Germany) 37, 106
patriarchal domination 175–180, 184–185, 193–194, 197
see also class domination
Peck, Jamie 19
People’s Party (Spain)  see PP (Partido Popular) (Spain)
Pérez, Lucía 180
Pilot agreements 100
pilots
DGB (German Trade Union Confederation) and 104, 121
as privileged workers 6, 74, 193, 210
strikes by 6, 7, 76n4, 115, 212
Pinochet dictatorship (Chile) 26, 32
Platzeck, Matthias 120
Podemos party (Spain) 45, 173, 186
Poland 75–76, 85, 180–181, 211
polarization 10, 41, 45–46, 118
The Political Economy of the Welfare State (Gough) 62
political fix 31
political in a narrow sense code  see mostly political code
political strikes  see strikes for political aims
Portugal 27, 39, 86, 171, 171n8, 212
postal workers 59, 76–77, 76n4, 108, 123, 210
Poulantzas, Nicos 54, 57, 60, 63–65
PP (Partido Popular) (Spain) 45, 165, 168, 172, 186, 189
Priest, Jan 16
private sector
public sector, compared to 56–57, 61–62, 78, 94, 138–139, 213
public services by 54, 133, 142
privatized Keynesianism 36, 38
producers 53–54, 63, 65
product fix 31
productivist cycles 25, 105, 107
progressive neoliberalism 33, 35–36, 37
proletarianisation fix 31
PSOE (Spanish Socialist Workers’ Party) 157, 159, 161, 165, 186, 187
public debt 28. 39, 40, 139–140, 154–155
Público (Madrid) 67, 206
public purse dilemma 148
public sector
about 55–59, 56, 57, 58
austerity measures in 58, 66
expansive-politicized strikes and 78–82
private sector, compared to 56–57, 61–62, 78, 94, 138–139, 213
working-class formation in 59–63
see also service and public sectors

Q

qualitative research 11, 16, 66–72, 69, 72, 212–213
quantitative research 5, 9–11, 68–69

R

Railway and Transport Union (Germany)  see EVG (Railway and Transport Union) (Germany)
railway strikes (Germany)
2007–8 wave 114–116
2014–16 wave 116–124, 117
2021 strike wave 126–130, 128
class formation and 130–132
comparison 201, 201
constituencies  see constituencies
demands  see demands
mobilizing dynamics  see mobilizing dynamics
see also Germany
Rajoy government (Spain) 86, 159, 168, 170, 173, 187, 190
Ramelow, Bodo 120
Rand Corporation 34n7
Reagan administration (US) 29, 32, 34, 44
Real Democracy Now (Spain) 165
red-green coalition (Germany) 24n2, 105–106
regime of ownership 62
relations of production  see capitalist relations of production
research
about 6
incorporated comparison 11–13, 13–14, 17, 67, 91, 133
limitations of 9–11
methodological Fordism 3–4, 200–201, 204
qualitative research 11, 16, 66–72, 69, 72, 212–213
quantitative research 5, 9–11, 68–69
snowball approach 207, 213
Reyes, Patricia 186n12
Riexinger, Bernd 119
RMT (National Union of Rail, Maritime and Transport Workers) 7, 37, 112
Rose, Sonya O. 178
Russell, Bertrand 198
Russia 58, 79n5
Ryanair 74, 212

S

Samaras government (Greece) 86
Sánchez government (Spain) 159, 187, 189
Sanders, Bernie 45, 47
Schäfer, Jakob 122
Schmidt, Rudi 114
Scholz, Olaf 45, 47, 103n5
Schröder, Bianca (interviewee) 123–124, 216
Schröder, Gerhard 35–36
Schröder government (Germany) 24n2, 30, 103, 105–106, 107, 117
sectors  see agricultural sector ; industrial sector ; public sector ; service and public sectors ; service sector
SED (East German Socialist Unity Party) 106
selection bias 6, 8–9, 57n4, 67–68, 208
service and public sectors
about 54–55
strikes in 52, 67, 73–74, 97, 116–117, 163–164, 173
unions in 102–103
working-class formation in 63–65, 77–78, 203, 204
service sector
about 48, 53–55
data 49, 50
goods, and production of 53–54
public employees as belonging to 53–55
strikes in 52, 53–54, 59, 67, 73–74, 75, 95, 97
unions in 94
Serwotka, Mark 145
Silver, Beverly 32, 50, 66, 198–199, 200, 206
Sinn, Hans-Werner 105n7
slavery 179–180
snowball approach 207, 213
social base of unions 15, 130, 161, 186
Social Democratic Party  see SPD (Social Democratic Party) (Germany)
socialism 24n2, 30, 34, 34n7, 45, 99n3
social pacts 156, 159–160, 164–165, 170
social partnership 98–102, 103, 104–105, 107, 108, 124–126
solidarity
exclusive 107. 114, 115, 193–194, 209
expansive 16–17, 74, 193–194, 204
Solidary of Basque Workers (ELA) (Spain) 157, 158
Soskice, David 4
South Africa
collective action in 26, 73, 76–77, 79, 208, 208n3
COSATU (Congress of South African Trade Unions) 37–38, 79
The Mail & Guardian 67, 206
neoliberalism in 35, 37–38
NUMSA (National Union of Metalworkers of South Africa) 37–38
public sector 56, 58
strikes in 76–77, 79
union activity in 58
working class formation in 77, 205
South African Communist Party 38
South Korea 32
sovereign debt crisis 39, 92, 106–107, 152–153, 155–160, 184, 202
SoZ 124
Spain
about 14
austerity measures 154–155, 160–162
deindustrialization in 91–96
double-dip recession 153–154
feminist general strikes  see feminist general strikes (Spain)
Franco regime 92n1, 156, 157, 159
general strikes  see feminist general strikes (Spain) ; general strikes (Spain)
labour relations in 155–161, 162
la Transición 92, 92n1, 137, 152, 157, 159, 161, 165–166
media coverage 166
Público 67, 206
public sector 56, 57
social pacts 156, 159–160, 164–165, 170
strike activity in (overview) 59, 86, 95, 96, 96, 152–153, 156
union activity in (overview) 92, 93, 94, 94, 95, 95, 156–160, 158
see also Rajoy government (Spain) ; Sánchez government (Spain) ; Zapatero government (Spain) ; specific unions (e.g., CC.OO, CGT, UGT)
Spanish Socialist Workers’ Party  see PSOE (Spanish Socialist Workers’ Party)
spatial fix 31, 50
SPD (Social Democratic Party) (Germany) 35, 37, 45, 103, 103n5, 106, 110, 120–121
stagflation 25–26
stagnation 25, 52, 105, 114, 159
stamocap (state monopoly capitalism) 5
state service  see service and public sectors
stoppages
Amazon 75–76
Britain 77, 137–138
examples of 7, 9, 26, 74, 80, 85–87
see also strikes
strikes
class effects of  see class effects
class formation and  see class formation
contradictions surrounding 10, 17, 112–113, 123
data 52
patterns of 71–72, 72
public sector 58–59
service and public sectors 52, 67, 73–74, 97, 116–117, 163–164, 173
service sector 52, 53–54, 59, 67, 73–74, 75, 95, 97
stoppages  see stoppages
tertiarization of 52, 116, 163–164, 173
see also feminist general strikes (Spain) ; general strikes (Spain) ; junior doctors’ strike (Britain) ; railway strikes (Germany)
strikes for political aims 72, 72, 87
see also mostly political code
subprime mortage crisis (US) 38
subsumptionism
about 4–9, 12–13, 16
avoiding 72, 112, 201, 210, 212
Šumonja, Miloš 46
surplus value, production of relative 25, 60, 62, 63–65, 105, 177–178
Sweden 58
Switzerland 75
SYRIZA party (Greece) 39, 45, 86

T

Tarifritual 100
Taylor, Frederick 24–26
taz 128–129
Tbilisi 80
technological fix 31
tertiarization 52, 116, 163–164, 173
Thatcher government (Britain)
about 44, 44n9
neoliberalism of 29, 34–35, 36
NHS (National Health Services) and 141
unions and 32, 33, 51, 92, 134, 136, 203
workers, division of 23
Tiefensee, Wolfgang 114
The Times of India 67, 76n4, 206, 208
Toxo, Ignacio 163, 170
trade agreements 21, 84
Trades Union Congress  see TUC (Trades Union Congress) (Britain)
Transnet (Germany) 111, 115, 124–125, 130–131, 164
tripartism 99, 101–102, 107, 156, 158–159
Troika 39, 86, 154, 155, 161
Trump, Donald 41, 44, 45, 47
Trump administration (US) 41, 181, 182
Tseng, David 208n3
Tsipras government (Greece) 39
TUC (Trades Union Congress) (Britain) 135–136, 137, 145–146, 150
Turkey 29
type of country code 212

U

Uber 75
UCU (University and College Union) (Britain) 150–151
UGT (General Union of Workers of Spain)
about 152n1, 157, 158
austerity measures, responses to 162
general strikes 168–169, 170–171, 187
social pact 160, 164
unemployment
COVID-19, due to 43
global crisis of 25–26
rates of 154
Unidas Podemos (Spain) 159, 187
Union of Beamten and Beamten Candidates at Deutsche Bundesbahn (GDBA) 110, 111, 115
Union of German Train Drivers  see GDL (Union of German Train Drivers)
Union of Railway Workers of Germany  see GdED (Union of Railway Workers of Germany)
unions
COVID-19, impact of on 43–44
density of 55, 58, 58, 62n5, 91–95, 92n1, 93, 94, 95, 136–138
legislation against 32, 120, 131–132, 136
neoliberalism and 22–23, 37–38, 51, 78–79
social base of 15, 130, 161, 186
see also specific unions (e.g., DGB, EVG, CC.OO, UGT)
Unions of Education Workers (Spain) 157
Unison (Britain) 135, 145
Unite (Britain) 135, 145, 147, 216
Unite the Resistance (Britain) 145
Unity of Collective Bargaining Act (Germany) 127–129, 132
Unterbau (Germany) 103n6
US (United States)
Bretton Woods system 28, 28n5, 29
feminist mass protests in 181, 182
liberalism in 10
public sector 56, 57
racism in 27
slavery in 179–180
strike activity in 58, 80–81
subprime mortgage crisis 38
unemployment 25
union activity in 58
see also Reagan administration
USO (Workers’ Trade Union) (Spain) 157, 158

V

van der Linden, Marcel 95–96
Varela, Paula 181
Varieties of Capitalism (Hall and Soskice) 4
Vassiliadis, Michael 118
VC (Vereinigung Cockpit) (Germany) 6, 7, 76n4, 104, 115, 121, 193
ver.di (Vereinte Dienstleistungsgewerkschaft) (Germany) 75, 102–103, 118, 119–120, 121–122, 123–124
Vereinigung Cockpit  see VC (Vereinigung Cockpit) (pilots’ union)
Vereinte Dienstleistungsgewerkschaft  see ver.di (Vereinte Dienstleistungsgewerkschaft)
Videla dictatorship (Argentina) 26
Vox party (Spain) 45, 189

W

wages 9, 55, 56
Wagner, Franz Josef 128
Walmart 80
Washington consensus 30, 41
Weselsky, Claus 112, 116, 119, 127, 128, 132
West Germany 25–26, 92n1, 98, 99, 99n3, 104–105, 108–109, 110, 179
see also Germany
Wetzel, Detlef 118
white wave (marea blanca) (Spain)  see general strikes (Spain)
workers
privately employed 55, 58, 59, 61, 62, 64, 65, 86
publicly employed 53, 54–55, 57, 57–59, 59, 60–63, 64–65
see also strikes ; unions
Workers’ Commissions, Spain  see CC.OO (Workers’ Commissions, Spain)
Workers’ Trade Union (USO) (Spain) 157, 158
working-class formation
public sector, in 59–63
service and public sectors, in 63–65, 77–78, 203, 204
see also class formation

Z

Zapatero government (Spain) 154–155, 160–161, 162, 165, 166, 173
Zelik, Raul 19–20, 172, 174
zombie metaphor 19–20, 42–43, 47

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